Chapter 4: Brief Description of Archaeological Field Work PDF

Chapter-4. Brief Description of Archaeological field work The terracotta’s seem to have been favorite idioms in the historic phases also. In comparison of the monumental works in stone, the terracotta objects of the historic phases may appear to be small and tiny, but nevertheless they tell the past history in no way less. A variety of significant motifs and forms may be found in terracotta’s. Its use was extensive and purpose varied. Objects and artifacts in terracotta’s were intended chiefly for domestic use and worship and household decoration, for children toys, for popular religious and magical practices. Terracottas or clay sculptures occupy an important place in the history of plastic art of India. Bihar is one of the most important Indian states which has yielded various types of terracotta figurines beginning at least as far back as third millennium B.C down to end of the Pala period around 11th – 12th century A.D. and the study of these terracottas is essential to complete the history of plastic art in Indian. In fact Bihar’s role in making terracotta art is very important. The most important and prolific centres of Bihar terracottas are : Chirand and Manjhi (Saran district), Belwa (Gopalganj district), Balirajgarh (Madhu-bani district) Katra(Sitamadhi district) Chechar, Hajipur and Vaiasli (Vaisali district) Lauriya Nandangarh (West Champāran district) Kumrahar, Bulandibagh, Mahavirghat in Pataliputra (Patna district) Rajgir and Nalanda(Nalanda district), Oriup, Champā and Antichak (Bhagalpur district) Taradih, Sonapur, Dharwat (Gaya district) Chausa and Buxar (Buxar district) and many other sites in Bihar. These terracottas include both surface collections and those discovered from the stratified layers. 77 Majority of the significant terracotta figures are accidental finds. In fact, no accurate data with regards to the strata of their discoveries are available. So we have to rely upon their style and technique, Coiffure and costumes, physical features, facial expression and the quality of the clay used and by comparative study with the stratified objects found in other sites. And the terracottas from the stratified layers pose no problem with regard to their date. These clay figures and figurines reveal the use of various techniques. As a matter of fact, the technique of making terracottas underwent improvement or changes hence we find that several methods had been used. They are hand –modelled as well cast in mould. They were made from single as well as with double moulds. Some of them are coloured also. Clay craftsman were intimately in touch with the life of the people- rural and urban and there is hardly any aspect of life that had not found place in their works. The study of plastic art, without the study of the terracotta’s therefore, remains incomplete. Beginning from Harappa down to the Pāla period, the terracotta art is found spread as rich and significant, “brocade on the composite textile of India’s artistic achievements”1. Coomarswamy has therefore, rightly observed that ‘the early Indian terracotta’s are of great importance, not only as documents of religious culture, but as document of the history of art’2. Bihar is one of the important States which has yielded various types of terracotta figurines, ranging from the pre-Mauryan to the Palā period. The frequency of the terracotta objects is, however, greater in the earlier periods as compared to that in the later periods. Terracotta of a proven pre- historic date have so far not been found from Bihar though terracotta possessing similar features have been found. These terracotta may, 78 therefore, be described as traditional types. The recent excavations at Oriup in the district of Bhagalpur has, however, yielded a terracotta female figurine of Mother Goddess which possesses all the characteristic feature of a pre-historic type. The figurine has been found from the earliest level in association with the black and red ware, bone objects and copper pieces. On the bass of the stratification, it may be ascribed to the Post-Harappan period. This may go to suggest that pre-historic types of terracotta were continuing till a later date. Another terracotta, a headless bird figurine from Chirand (District Saran), with a punctured decoration on its body has been found in association with copper, iron and black and red ware. This figure also appears to be of this group. The terracotta’s from many Sites of Bihar state may be divided into three groups: - (a) Human figurine (b) Animal figurine (c) Bird figurine The Earliest Terracotta (pre-Mauryan period):- The history of terracotta in Bihar, as a matter of fact, begins from the Neolithic period and continued till date. Numerous terracotta figurines have been retrieved from Buxar, Bulandibagh, Vaiśālī, Sonpur, Chirand, Kumrahar and Mahabirghat etc. These terracotta’s may be divided into three groups – human figurines (both male and female), animal figurines and bird figurines. Some of these are hand modelled, while others appear to have been fashioned on the appliqué technique. The arms and the legs in most of the cases look like two vertical lines, though in some cases representation of hands with fingers are also noticed. In this connection, special mention may be made of a terracotta male figurine from 79 Mahabirghat3 (in district of Patna) in which legs are like two vertical lines and arms are represented without the indication of elbows. The Neolithic Chirand has added a new page in the history of India. The earliest handmade terracottas of human, animal and bird figurines were discovered here4. We have humped bull and dove like bird, all hand-made. We have one hooded snake and a coiled snake. Neolithic terracottas figurine of bull, serpent and crude female figurine provide the earliest material evidence of religious beliefs. The most notable, however, is the archaic female figure of Mother Goddess5 measuring 5.5 cm. in height. Besides the Neolithic Chirand, the site of Taradih near Bodhgaya temple is another Neolithic site which has yielded terracotta figurines from the Neolithic level6. Among them the terracotta bull is very important7. Humped bull terracottas of Neolithic period have also been found at Piklihal, Sangankalu and some other sites. Although the artists of the Neolithic phase have not succeeded in portraying the above mentioned object still they have succeeded in giving them some definite forms. In a way, such representations appear to be of magical character. It has, therefore, rightly been observed by the great art critic Fischer8 that art in the beginning was a magic tool and had little to do with beauty. The Neolithic culture was followed by the Chalcholithic cultural remains noted at Chirand, Sonpur, Oriup, Taradih, Chechar, Maner, Senuvar and Hajipur. The terracotta art predominates in the subsequent Chalcholithic period. A flourishing Chalcholithic culture was met with at Chirand. From period II of this site bull figurines have also been found. They are remarkable for their striking similarity to their counterparts in the Harappan context. Among them, the bigger one is 4.1 cm. in lengths and its total height is 3.6 cm. It has pointed mouth with aids ear and horns broken. 80 There is perforation near its nostrils also. Its hump is very prominent and its tail is also represented prominently. Its pair of legs both front and hind are fused. The bull figurine is very small9 in size measuring 2.8 cm x 1.9 cm only. Its legs are shown separately but the head is broken. A miniature sarcophagous10 has also been unearthed from Chalcholithic levels at Chirand. It is polished red and measures 9.5 cm x 5 cm on its body and outer belly portion bear some line drawing in red ochre and kaolin. Its only leg is extant, which is approximately 2 cm in height. The excavation at Oriup, about 2 kms to the west of Antichak by the Deptt. Of Ancient Indian History and Archaeology, Patna University has revealed a terracotta female figurine, probably a Mother Goddess. The Iron Age in Bihar can be divided into two phases- the Early phase and the Later phase. In the former, the art which have survived are in the form of clay figurines which have been found from different sites in Patna such as Bulandigarh, Kumrahar, Mahavirghat and Sadar Gali etc. special mentions may be made of terracottas male figurine from Mahavirghat11 in which legs are like two vertical lines, and arms are represented without the indication of elbows. The figurine of snake goddesses12 and Nigamasa13 from Bulandibagh were essentially cult objects. Among other terracotta animal figurines, the most notable are those of elephant, dog and ram. Among birds, dove and cock are represented which are similar to the Harappan type in technique and style. Four human figurines discovered from the lower level of period I of Patliputra were hand-modelled and evinced poor workmanship14. Most important among them is a standing male figure with stretched leg held slightly apart. The nostrils have been shown by two holes and mouth by a small horizontal cut near the chin. 81 The right hand is held across the chest and the left arm and leg are completely broken. Fingers of hands and legs have been indicated by notches and impressed ringlets stand for eyes, nipples and navel portion. The other three are also standing male figurines. Two of the figurines have animal like face15. The face of another figure is like snout16. This figure is holding both the arms in his lap. The circlets are representing the eyes, breast and the navel portion. Pataliputra excavations of the years 1955-56 yielded a number of terracotta animal figurines. The animal figurines from period I were hand- made and were usually impressed in the circlets and incised lines17. On the whole, the figurines discovered from the earliest level indicated the archaic style and displayed lack of imagination of the artists in the art of clay modelling. Buxar is another important site which has yielded terracotta figurines of early period. Excavations carried out in 1963-64 at Buxar revealed four phase of cultural deposits. Period I appears to be a pre N.B.P. cultural phase. It was represented by red, black and grey potteries. In this period, the antiquities which came to light were of much interest. The important discovery of this period included six hand-made terracottas18 of which four were animal figurines and two female figurines on the body of animal figurines such as elephant, ram and horse, there were three horizontal strokes in yellow colour on the leg, back and tail of the animals19. Terracottas that have been reported from Hastinapur from pre- N.B.P. level are much more crudely made and have no paintings on them. B.P. Sinha20 has placed these pre- N.B.P. terracottas figurines from Buxar in 60 B.C. Another notable site of potential significance in Campā situated about two furlong to the north of Nathnagar Railway station. Excavation carried out at this site has yielded terracotta animal figurines such as 82 elephant, bull, dog, Nāga and Nāgin with human body which is decorated with dots and incised lines. All these figurines from the lowest level are essentially hand-made specimens. But a significant change is noticed in the terracotta figurines unearthed from the upper level of the N.B.P. phase. The figurines comprising both human and animals have been made through moulds in the form of plaques depicting varied figures including Śakti type with weapons. A female figurine from Buxar also deserves special notice. It is seated on a stool-like object with two flatted legs and is holding a child in her left arm and the left leg of the child resets on the breast of the mother, while the right arm and leg on her back. The figure of the child has been separately modelled and affixed. The nose is pinched and slightly modelled and a slit has been used for the mouth. The mother is wearing wheel shaped ear-rings. The snake goddess and Naigameśa was cult object. As far as animal figurines are concerned elephant, dog and ram are commonly represented21. The ram has been very naturalistically modelled. There is one interesting point relating to treatment of eyes by which these specimens may be connected with some specimens of the Harappan age. The eye balls are separately modelled and then stuck within the sockets. This is a characteristic which was very commonly found in the Harappan age. Among birds, dove and cock22 are represented which are similar to the Harappan type in technique and style. The representation of cock probably appears as the earliest representation of Indian plastic art. Among the ornaments worn by these figurines, are ear-rings of different designs, and necklace. The female figurines also wear the girdle which is of different shapes. Some figurines wear anklets and armlets. In 1926-27 trial excavations limited to a trench on the ancient earthen mound on which the medieval fort stands showed that Buxar has 83 significant antiquities to be revealed. Some inscribed seals in early Brāhmī and a number of beautiful terracottas, with characteristic female terracottas with peculiar coiffure were recovered. These terracottas have been rightly placed in the pre-Mauryan and Mauryan periods. Since then Buxar Terracottas have a special niche in the history of terracottas in India. The mound has been under constant washing away by the Gangā for many centuries Realizing the height and volume of the mound and the early discoveries and the danger of everything being lost in quick time, the State Directorate of Archaeology undertook a very small scale excavation to determine the cultural sequence of the site in 1963-64. Due to huge volume of sand deposit the virgin soil was not reached. In the lowest exposed trench red-ware, black-ware, black burnished-ware and grey-ware were met with. Some human terracottas in archaic style with incised eyes, punched nose and earlobes and split lip, and perforations on the head for hair, suggesting of pre-Mauryan date, were found. Then some animal figures very well made and painted with yellow lines were met with. This was a new discovery as such painted terracottas in pre-Mauryan layers were not reported from any other site. It is interesting to note that no N.B.P. sherd was found in this level in the trench. Black and grey were associated potteries with N.B.P. in most of the sites and even in Buxar in other trenches. But it is also to be borne in mind that at Śriṅgaverpura and at Campā a thin layer with black burnished ware and grey ware without N.B.P. is met with. So Buxar IA period with painted animal figurines and archaic terracotta may be placed in pre- N.B.P. period. We should now refer to the terracotta found from Neolithic Chirand. Terracotta figurines of a bull, snake, birds, have been found. One punctured-decorated object is shaped like miniatureṅga. li Whether bull, snake or birds had religious significance we cannot tell, but vessels with 84 perforation and an oval-shaped broad lipped (libation?) vessel may suggest ritualistic significance. Bull and snake later were worshipped in this part of the country and pouring oil and/or water on a sacṟ ed symbol is a persistent popular ritual. The history of religion and religious ideas may be taken back to the Neolithic times. The most notable discovery from Chalcholithic level of Chirand is the terracotta model of a copper-hoard type of double-edged axe bearing punctured designs in the form of triangles along the edges. One of the rare find in mid N.B.P.W. level, assigned to the Mauryan period, is a terracotta mask, (length 35 cm, breadth 32.5 cm), of a human figure on both faces of the mask, a female and male on either face. It must have been used at a pantomime. The double-face is difficult to explain. On the upper levels of the period there are remains of brock structures though evidence of mud walls also in there. Along with these terracotta figurines the other antiquities associated with the NBP cultural deposit are numerous iron objects such as spear points, daggers, knife, chisel and nails, Terracotta male and female figurines, nāga-figures, terracotta ram, ram-cart, terracotta wheel, pestle, skin rubbers, dabbers, weights, sealing’s, gamesman, moulds, crucible, beads and sling balls may be noted. Bone objects comprise of stylus, points and a disc made of ivory with decoration. Mauryan Terracotta: With the rise of the Mauryan empire (321 BC-185 BC), Patna, then called Pātaliputra became the seat of power and nerve center of the Indian subcontinent. From Pātaliputra, the famed emperor Chandragupta ruled a vast empire, stretching from the Bay of Bengal to Afghanistan. 85 Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with a complex administration under the tutelage of Kautilya. Early Mauryan Pātaliputra was mostly built with wooden structures. The wooden buildings and palaces rose to several stories and were surrounded by parks and ponds. Another distinctive feature of the city was the drainage system. Water course from every street drained into a moat which functioned both as defense as well as sewage disposal. According to Megasthenes, Pātaliputra of the period of Chandragupta, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers— (and) rivaled the splendors of contemporaneous Persian sites such as Susa and Ecbatana". Chandragupta's son Bindusara deepened the empire towards central and southern India. Patna under the rule of Aśoka, the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya, emerged as an effective capital of the Indian subcontinent. Emperor Aśoka transformed the wooden capital into a stone construction around 273 BC. Chinese scholar Fa-Hein, who visited India sometime around A.D. 399-414, has given vivid description of the stone structures in his travelogue. The rise of Maurya’s make a new epoch not only in Indian political history but also in the field of art history. Pātaliputra was centre of all these activities. The artist of Patliputra used clay in abundance and we get a large number of terracotta of Mauryan age from excavation of Pātaliputra. According to Saraswati, Mauryan terracotta’s are characterized by remarkable individual traits in respect of physiognomy as well as expression. He says that their ascription to the Mauryan age may be doubtful but their very individuality marks them as forming a distinct class by themselves, as significant as the sculptural art in this epoch. In respect 86 of size also the Mauryan terracotta’s are bigger than the remaining ones. These terracotta’s have moulded face and modelled body but no part of body appears to have been separately made and affixed. However the jewellery and apparel are affixed in these figures. The best example of Mauryan terracottas are from Bulandibagh in Pātaliputra. Bulandibagh terracotta’s have rightly been observed by Coomarswamy as one of the most sensitive production of Indian art of any period. The study of the terracotta’s figurines of Mauryan Period from Bihar clearly reveals that the representation of females was more popular and they found more favour from the artists. We have four very large pieces of female representations three of them from Bulandibagh, at present displayed in the terracotta gallery of Patna museum. These figures are undoubtedly few of the best pieces prepared during this period. All these pieces are in dancing pose. The study of these figures clearly reveals that dancing was popular among the ladies of the Mauryan age and for this purpose use of skirt was also popular among them. Besides these sārī was also worn by the female of this period. It appears that the skirt was probably worn by young girls, while Lion-cloth or sārī was worn by the ladies. Generally the upper part of the body was left bare but in some cases the bodies and uttaritya are also noticed. These female figurines have their hair arranged in a variety of styles in many cases encircled by a wreath of flowers or a pearl-string or tiara. The head-dress has been represented in various styles in certain cases with the help of appliqué method. The study of this terracotta’s clearly reveals that use of ornaments was popular among the females of Mauryan age also. Among the popular ornaments of this age, necklace, ear-ring as well as ear-stud, bangles, head 87 ornament, girdles are worth mentioning. However nose-stud, finger rings and anklets are not noticed in the terracotta figurines of this period. It is worth mentioning that anklet has been noticed in the famous Didarganj Chauri bearer stone figure as well as in another figure from Lauria - Nandangarh. It indicates anklet was not used by all women and it was used only by wealthy women. From the Golakpur excavation at Patna we have a very fine female torso which is remarkable in several ways. In its pose, modelling of the body and rich ornamentation, it approximates the Didarganj Chauri bearer23. It was modelled by hand and then moulded ornaments were affixed. She is wearing a thick garland round the neck with a tassel on the back and a long double necklace of round and elongated beads with clasp near the left breast having a pearl terminal arranged from left shoulder to right hip and on back. A broad light belt is fastened round the narrow waist having a central clasp with three long tassels on the loft height and the lower end of the scarf tucked under it. On the hips is again a broad loose girdle of four strings with beads of varying designs in each. This torso is undoubtedly one of the most richly ornamented figures of Ancient India. The use of these ornaments by the females of this age in large number clearly indicates that the people of this age were interested in dressing themselves properly. Again the use of ornaments in large number must have helped the gold-smiths. There are large number of representations is which the ladies have been shown smiling but in not a single case they have been shown laughing though there are male figures which has been shown laughing like the laughing boy figure from Bulandibagh, Patna. This clearly indicates that laughing loudly by female was not taken as a good manner. 88 We have few representations of this age in which the females have been shown with child in their lap and in some of them they are shown feeding their child. This clearly indicates that the mother aspects of the female were given prominence even by the Mauryan artists. The study of modelling of female figures clearly indicates that big breasts, narrow waist and broad hips was ideal figure of women of even that day and the artists tried to represent the ladies in that manner. Such was not a case with the male figures and in the modelling they are never shown having narrow waist. Rather they are of robust health. A large number of nude male figurines of Mauryan period are reported from Pātaliputra. One of the best representations of this period is yogi, which is an absolute nudity. He has a child like face and jata like head-dress. He wears ear-rings, necklace and a beaded-girdle. Another figure of such type is in the possession of Patna Museum, Patna. This male torso has unique resemblance with the Jaina torso from Lohanipur, Patna. Still another figure in round from Pātaliputra depicts a nude figure in yogī like posture24. These headless figures have been shown seated. His right leg is bent to the left but the left leg is partly broken. The figure has a double bead-chain around his waist. Besides these figures, there are other nude male representations also from Pātaliputra and in one of those pieces there is slight trace of the black slip. The popularity of these nude male representations must have certain important reasons. The Jain works like Rajavali Katha claim that the first Mauryan ruler Chandragupta Maurya was a Jain. It is very much possible that Jainism might have been a popular religion at that time and the artists might have been influence by the Jain Saints. Two Jain torso from Lohanipur, one of Maurya and other of Śunga period also justify it. 89 Otherwise if only nudity would have attracted the artist; they must have represented the females also in nude. However, all the male representations are not nude. We have many figurines which has been shown wearing dhotī. In most of the cases the upper portion is uncovered. However turban was being used by those people as we notice in certain figurines. In certain cases the males are also shown wearing few ornaments like necklace, ear-ring and girdles. One of the most beautiful pieces of this period is head of laughing boy25, presently preserved in Patna museum, Patna. This head discovered from Bulandibagh, has two cornered head dress covered by a cloth shows its wavy edge round the back of the cloth or ribbon are affixed to the back. Smiling girl26 head from Bulandibagh is another very good work of this period. The facial expression of the girl is worth seeing. Her hair is marked on the high forehead coming forth from underneath the rim of the head gear. The ears are drawn out laterally into flat discs. Only the right part of a flowered torque is preserved underneath the long neck. At the back, flat pieces of cloth hang down and are affixed in the centre. As far as the religious representations of this period from Pātaliputra, is concerned it is rare. Three snake representations of Patna placed to Mauryan period are taken as that of Mother Goddess27. If they are not identified as that of Mother Goddess, we can suggest that Nāga worship must have been popular during this period. The terracotta animal figurines which can be definitely placed in this age are comparative lower in number. Amongst animal figurines belonging to this period are elephant, horses, dogs and rams28. These animal figurines are better in workmanship than the pre-Mauryan ones. We have no humped bull of this period from Pātaliputra, though it has been reported from Vaiśālī. Comparative unpopularity of humped bull during this age might be 90 due to popularity of Buddhism during the rule of the Mauryan. The terracotta representation of the pig belonging to the Indus Valley age has been unearthed, but we do not find any terracotta representation of the pig in the post Indus valley pre-Mauryan age. There is a great dissimilarity between these three examples of the Indus age and the Mauryan specimen, the latter has been made according to different art-technique. Besides the terracotta elephant of the Mauryan age, terracotta elephants of the Indus Valley and post Indus Valley pre-Mauryan ages have also been found. There is some similarity between the Maurya and the post-Indus Valley pre-Mauryan specimens but no such similarity is to be found between the Maurya and Indus-Valley examples29. Besides these, various bird figurines30 have also been found in this period. Śunga Period Terracottas: The successors of Aśoka were weak, licentious and lacked qualities to rule over a large empire. The weakness in the administration led to discontentment among the public. The empire was passing through such ṣyamitra Śunga, the General of the Army, killed political unrest, Pu Bṛhadartha, the last of the imperial Mauryas. With the fall of the imperial Maurya, the political unity of India collapsed. In south, the Āndhras or Sātavāhanas established a powerful sovereign empire; Kali ṇga asserted its independence under the Chetas; the Gandhāra and the local princes of the North-West declared themselves independent and in Magadha, the Śungas supplanted the Mauryas. Beside the internal disintegration, India was threatened by foreign invaders. The king of the Śunga family ruled for hundred and twelve years. Their dominion extended in the south as far as the Narmadā and included the Cities of Pātaliputra and Ayodhyā in the North and Vidishā in Eastern Mālwā. The Śunga Empire was, thus, much 91 smaller than that of Aśoka, but in the field of art, it crossed its political ṣyamitra was succeeding by Agnimit ra, Vasumitra, boundaries. Pu Bhāgabhadra and others. The last king of this line was Devabhūti. The Śunga had faith in Brāhmaṇism. This had led some scholars to think that the dismemberment of the Maurya Empire was brought about by a reaction promoted by the Brāhmaṇas and the assassination of the last ṣyamitra was, but the successful culmination of a Mauryan King by Pu revolution hatched and engineered by the Brāhmaṇas. Some scholars have pointed Puṣyamitra as an orthodox Hindu and a cruel persecutor of Buddhists responsible for reducing Sanghārāmas and Vihāras to dust. While, there is nothing to show that royal tyranny and official oppression were directed against the Brāhmaṇas, there is evidence to indicate that the people had hardly any love for the Maurya dynasty and its administration. Puṣyamitra might not have been very friendly towards Buddhism but, the charge that he brought about destruction and insult to that creed is not substantiated. During his own life time, many Buddhist monuments were created and renovated at Bhārhut, Bodhgaya and Sanchi. Whatever sect and religion the Śunga king followed, they ruled for a considerable period with strength and ability. They repulsed many foreign attacks, maintained their territories intact and preserved harmony and order in the kingdom. This was enough for art to flourish. The art of Bhārhut, Sanchi and Bodhgaya is the living testimony of the advancement in the field of art, social prosperity and religious activities. The Śunga dynasty ruled from 185 BC to 72 BC. And they were followed by the Kaṇvas who ruled up to 30 BC. Thereafter , the history of Northern India plunged into as age of darkness before the advent of the Kuṣāṇa. But the terracotta of the period maintain the status quo, i.e., it 92 maintains the norms of the preceding Śunga terracotta till the advent of the Kuṣāṇas. The Śungas controlled vast areas of the Indian Subcontinent from around 185 to 73 BCE. Its capital was Pātaliputra, but later emperors such as Bhagabhadra also held court at Vidisha, modern Besnagar in Eastern Malwa. During the Śunga period, art activities received special impetus. Along with the stone, ivory and metal, the modeller’s art was encouraged. Unlike the Mauryan period, the terracotta art was not confined to a few centers; it covered a wide region comprising several sites. Earlier terracotta art maintained by a regional flavour, each centre having its own special features, not common to other centre, But in the Śunga epoch, this characteristic of regionalism or individualism receded to the background and the art objects seems to have been produced under the set formulae acceptable to all. If any kind of regionalisms noticed at all in the Śunga terracotta art, it is in selecting a story theme which enjoyed tremendous popularity, but, certainly not in style in terracotta art. The Śunga period witnessed the emergence of an art movement with national appeal. Based on certain concrete norms, the movements inspired alike, the ivory carvers the sculptors and modellers of different places, to produce their objects under one banner. Probably it is for this reason that a great similarity is noticed in the clay-figurine of different places and the figures carved out in stone, ivory and precious metal like gold. From the point of view of subject-matter, the terracotta art of this period is also different from that of the earlier period and reflects more of the mind, tradition and culture of a larger section of the people than the Maurya-art was capable of. The objects are different in motive and direction, forms, technique and significance. The Śunga terracotta art, in 93 form and spirit, is practically a negation of all that Maurya terracotta art stands for. Ray holds that during and after the Mauryan, a silent revolution gradually made itself felt against all that the Mauryan and their court stood for; but, this reaction had nothing to do with the Brāhmaṇas as such 31. The view is reasonable and explains the background of the modeller’s art as well. At the present state of our knowledge it is difficult to decide as to which medium of art impressed the other mediums. However, according to some scholars, the ivory carvers of Vidisha, possibly, influenced to a certain extent, the sculptures at Sanchi.32 This suggestion explains why figures in stone, in general, are in low relief and flat in appearance; it may further, lead us to infer that the Śunga - modellers, possibly, had drawn inspiration from the contemporary stone sculptures. There are many terracotta figurines which bear close similarity, in details of drapery, ornaments and coiffure, to the figures on the stone-railings and gateways of the Śunga period. The Indian plastic art reached its height of glory during the Śunga period when a great advancement in the art of making terracotta is noticed. As far as the technique is concerned not much change is observed though some miniature figurines, completely moulded have been put into this group by some scholars, yet the possibility of these plaques being of a later date cannot be ruled out. These terracotta figurines can also be divided into three groups – (i) Figurine consisting of male, female and children (ii) Animal figurines and (iii) Bird figurines. 94 The terracotta human figurines of this period appears to be sensitively modelled and are better regulated having more disciplined lines. Faces are of different type like oval, round, elongated. Like the face, the eyes and nose are also treated in different and annalistic ways, but in some cases the ears are not definitely indicated33 and in some other the ears are probably hidden behind the ear rings. They wear heavy coiffure, elaborate jewellery and dress. The nose is naturalistically moulded, the arms shows the indication of the elbows, the wrist and the fingers while the legs show the representation of knees, the ankles and the toes. These figurines closely resemble the BodhGayā and the Bhārhut sculptures34. In female figurines the breasts are modelled in a naturalistic way having spontaneous development out of the flesh of the body. This character is found in the case of the pre-Mauryan and the Mauryan terracotta figurines but not in the case of the Indus Valley terracotta figurines. Traditional types of terracotta figurines belonging to this period may be put into the religious group. Certain religious figurines have also been prepared by these artists along with secular figurine. One of the terracotta’s round plaque from Pātaliputra dipict a figure standing in a Chariot drawn by four horses. He wears a coat, has a quiver and shoots an arrow. The charioteer on his right holds with the left hand the reigns of the four horses and with right a long staff, a bird is perched behind the chariot. Ball shaped tassels (?) hangs from the chariot and form the harness of the horse. The figure is somehow similar to the figure of Surya of Śunga period depicted on Bodh-Gayā railing pillar35 showing the God driven by four horses. Therefore, this plaque has also been identified with figure of Surya36, though Sun is never shown shooting arrow himself in any depiction (Arch.8570). Another plaque37 depicting a male figure with a female figure 95 close to each other also lends support that various terracotta human figurines were made during this period. The man wears a skirt like object across chest. Their legs are however disproportionally short. The figure is slightly worn (Arch.9586). The nudity of the female figurine and the hair arrangement to the male figure clearly go to show that the artist intended to depict some religious episode. This plaque has been identified as figure of Siva and Parvati. Particular mention may be made of two female figurines, one from Buxar and another from Patna38 (Pātaliputra) (Arch.9473). The female terracotta figurines reveal many types of dress. Some of the female figurines are absolutely nude39. In these female figurines there is no indication of the garment and the sex-organ is clearly indicated. Some of the female figurines have the upper body bare and the lower body clothed. There is yet another female figures from Kumrahar40 who wears a ghāgharā like lower garment. There are some male figurines which are absolutely nude, but there are other male figurines whose whole body is clothed. In some male figurines the upper body is bare and lower body clothed. There are various types of head-dress worn by these figurines. Of these special mention should be made of head-dress which has a clear foreign influence. The most important ornaments worn by these figurines are ear- rings, necklace, girdle, bracelet and anklet. The art of modelling, linear composition, dress and ornament shows that from the stylistic point of view of Śunga terracotta figurines are true inheritors of the art of the pre-Maurya and Maurya ages. The terracotta specimens of animal belonging to this age are comparatively few in number. Among the animal figurines41 belonging to this period, representation of dogs (Arch. 6678), ram (Arch. 4249), elephants and bull have been found. Numerous bird figurines42 have also been found and they are parrot, cocks, geese, doves etc. Beside these 96 figurines the fish and squirrel43 have also been found for the first time in this period in Bihar. These types of figurines are not noticed in the earlier group of terracotta’s so far discovered. The Śunga modellers prepared, along with the individual figures, some plaques narrating stories and events. But, the method of narration is different from that of the narrative sculpture. In stone the main figure of the actor, on certain occasions, repeatedly occurs to show the progress of the story, but, in terracotta art it is different. The main figure appears only once and the entire story or incident is narrated by creating atmosphere and depicting other salient features connected with the situation. It seems that the idea behind the repeating of the main figure by the sculptor was to make everyone easily follow the story and its progress; such panels were prepared for the general public, Indian or non-Indian who visited those places on pilgrimage or for a business trip. Quite opposed to this, was the attitude of the Śunga modellers. Possibly, they made such narrative plaques not for the general understanding of the public, but, for those limited groups who where fully conversant with the story or event and for places were those stories were quite popular. Such examples are in the terracotta plaques depicting the stories of Udayana and Vāsavadattā,44 Rāvaṇa and Sītā,45 and Śakuntalā and ṣyanta, Du 46 which have been found from Kauśāmbī and Bhita. The availability of the plaques, from Kauśāmbī and Bhita alone, also confirms that these stories were quite popular in those places and people knew every details of the story and could identify the scene without repetition of the main figure. Moreover, it was technically not possible for the modellers to repeat the main figure since the space available was extremely limited. In the last phase of the Śunga Period, the technique of moulding underwent some changes. The figurines made during this period do not 97 reflect the flatness generally noticed on the plaque of the earlier phase. Figurines of this group were not made on plaques, but attempts were made ṣa figure and the toy carts of ram and to have them in round. The Yak crocodile of the kediya collection of Bharat Kala Bhawan, are examples of this type, which, on the basis of their style, have been dated back to the transition period between the 1st cent. B.C. and the 1st cent. A.D.47 With the advent of Śunga period, the style which was hitherto regional became national. All the centers of terracotta preferred a common formula of expression. Technically speaking, this period opted for fully moulded variety, but, plastically they are flat, strictly two dimensional and exhibits the characteristics of contemporary reliefs in stone. Compositionally, the depiction of nature predominated and thematically the period introduced new iconographic conceptions of gods and goddesses and finally, from the artistic point of view, greater attention was paid towards ornamentation of a figure than to expose its physical beauties. The Kuṣāṇa Terracotta: After the decline of the Śunga Empire, the Pratihara and the Śakas became powerful, but in their turn, they were swept away by rulers of the Yueh-chin tribe of Scythic origin whose original homeland was in the province of Kansa in north-western China. These people were expelled from their country and were compelled to migrate westwards. In course of their march, they reached the valley of the Oxus. They spread over Bactria and Sogdiana, gradually lost their nomadic habits and divided their territory into five principalities. In course of time, the Kuṣāṇa, a section of the Yueh-chin, under the leadership of Kujula Kadphises became predominant over other sections. Kujula Kadphises united the five Yueh-chin principalities under his rule 98 and thus, laid the foundation of a strong Kuṣāṇa monarchy. He adva nced to the south of the Hindukush, attacked the Parthians and conqured Kipin and the Kabul region. He also ousted Hermaeus, the last of the Greek sovereigns. Thus, Kadphises-I, firmly established the Kuṣāṇa power on the borders of India. Kadphises-I was succeed by Vima Kadphises or Kadphises-II. He extended the Kuṣāṇa power further into the interior of India, conquering the Punjab and probably, some territories in the Utter Pradesh. He issued gold coins showing himself as a worshipper of Śiva and called himself Māheśvara. Kadphisses-II was succeeding by Kaniska, who was a great king, great alike in war and peace. He proved himself to be an able military commander; and spent most of his life in campaigning both in and out of India. Kaniska made Peshawar his winter capital and extended his conquests from central Asia to Bengal. He was a great builder and art lover. He adorned Peshawar with many noble buildings. Under his patronage, the art of carving images in stone reached a new height. Kaniska’s reign was a period of political stability which gave a favorable atmosphere for art and literature to flourish. His name is associated with three eminent Buddhist writers viz., Nāgārjuna, Aśvaghoṣa and Vasumitra. Craka, the most celebrated author of Indian system of medicine, is reputed to have been the court physician of Kaniska. In his regime, Mathura and Gandhara came up as two flourishing art-centers. Although the rulers of the ṣāṇa Ku family were foreigners, they merged themselves in the Indian way of life and became Indians. Kadphises-II had become Māheśvara, while, Kaniska, a Buddhist. This religious tolerance possibly helped the art to flourish with all its vigor. The Buddha was no more worshipped through a few symbols, but was depicted 99 in a personified form. The zeal to produce the lord in human form was very intense and the artists did not mind shaping him in several forms. The number of Buddha figures recovered so far is so large that one feels that they were generally made in a mechanical manner in established workshop.48 Secular themes and gods and goddesses of other religion also ṣāṇa art. Earlier images were generally made in found a place in the Ku shallow relief with considerable flatness, but this tendency vanished with the advent of Kuṣāṇa art. In showing different limbs of the body, the sculptor displayed masterly perfection, exhibiting in them adequate delicacy and firmness. Their very first sight creates a peculiar harmonious appeal. In a nutshell, the art became resonant and manifold. Thus, we see that the art of making images in stone was highly advanced imparting zealous aesthetic joy. Quite contrary in the case with the terracotta art. After the phase of completely moulded Śunga figurines, the terracotta art was expected to develop in that direction further, in Kuṣāṇa period. But, surprisingly, we notice a decline or reversal to crudity in style. In majority of figurines, we fail to mark any achievement either in technique or in the compositions with various subject-matters. The terracotta art did not maintain the height which it once enjoyed during the Śunga period. The refined style of the Śunga period does not disappear altogether, it is found only in a limited number of figurines. Once notices a general rot and languishing tendency in this particular branch of aesthetic expression; it does not show a corresponding vitality either. The excavations of Ahichchatra, Hastinapura, Kauśāmbī, Bhita, Rajghat, ṣāṇa sites of Uttar Pradesh and Pataliputra, Mathura and many other Ku Buxar, Sonpur, Chirand, Vaiśālī & Champā and many other Ku ṣāṇa sites of Bihar are witness to this phenomenon. The number of refined, figures from the Kuṣāṇa levels is extremely limited. 100 ṣāṇaKuperiod Technically also, the terracotta figurines of the witness a change. In the Śunga period, as stated earlier, completely ṣāṇa modellers did not depend on this moulded figures were made but Ku technique alone. Besides single-moulded plaques, they made double moulded and hand modelled figurines. Icongraphically also, the Kuṣāṇa terracotta art achieved a new status, never experienced in the earlier periods. The Buddha figure was, for the first time, introduced in this period and it played a prominent role in the lithic art. Surprisingly, its examples in terracotta art are very few and are limited to Hastinapura, Kauśāmbī, Mathura, Buxar, Pātaliputra, Chirand, Vaiśālī and Sonpur. The reason for its unpopularity in this medium of art is unknown. However, the figure so far reported represents the Bodhisattva, Kubera, Hārītī and Vasudhārā. Although the numbers of Buddhist figurines are comparatively less in number, they show considerable similarity with stone sculpture of that age and prove that theṣāṇa Ku modellers, unlike their Śunga predecessors, were not satisfied with Vasudhārā alone. They also introduced certain iconographical features to the Buddhist images not known in the Śunga period. Some images of Brahamanical Pantheon of the Śunga period also continued to be made; while some deities were dropped, some new ones ṣmī was were added with developed iconographical details. Goddess Lak very popular in the Śunga period, but, she seems to have lost her position as her images became scarce in this age. However, the depiction of Rāmāyana scene, Kāmdeva and the mother goddess continued, at times, with greater accomplishment. During the 1st and early 2nd centuries AD the Kuṣāṇas expanded rapidly across the northern part of the Indian sub-continent at least as far as Saketa and Sarnath near Varanasi (Benares) where inscriptions have 101 been found dated to the first few years of era of the most famous Kuṣāṇa ruler, Kanishka. The Kuṣāṇa age is one of the most important art epochs of India. From this period the beginning of a new element in the domain of Indian art is noticed. In the Kuṣāṇa age there were mainly three kinds of sculpture, one having a mixture of Hellenistic and Indian elements, the second having Indian elements only and the third having Scythian elements49. It is true that the presence of these three types of sculptures is due to historical and stylistic causes. A good number of terracotta figurines of the Kuṣāṇa period have also been discovered. The Kuṣāṇa terracotta’s have been found from different sites such as – Kumrahar, Patna, Buxar, Vaiśālī, Belwa (Saran), Chirand and Sonpur etc. This terracotta’s are well modelled, smooth and show sensuous contours. They have almond-shaped eyes with holes in the circular eye-bells, flat and heavy nose, broad chest and folds in the garment. The navel is indicated by a hole. The breasts are also indicated by punched holes. In the words of Saraswati50 “the terracotta art of this period seems to represent a movement, parallel to the contemporary plastic art in stone, and bears the stamp and impress of the latter”. Numerous terracotta of these group have been found from recent excavation from various ancient sites of Bihar and they are very much similar to the Mathurā and the Gandhara sculpture in respect of their features, dress and ornaments. The garment of the female figurine is arranged in such a manner that it covers her entire body in one sweep. This style of wearing sārī was still popular amongst the ladies. The terracotta female figurines from Pātaliputra (Patna) have been shown wearing sārī-like lower garment in such a manner that a number of folds are seen in it. The ample folds that it has formed and the manner in 102 which the front plates have been arranged indicate the fact that the lower garment of the female was greater in length than that of males. The torso of a female figure has been shown wearing a skirt51. This shows two types of lower garments, the sārī and the skirt were in use during this period. They further show that the fabric and texture of the garments were thin and transparent52. Thus we find that various types of upper and lower garments were worn by women during this period. The most common dress was sārī which covered both upper and lower parts of the body. In such cases there was no separate garment of the upper part. This was probably the dress for the poor class of people or the dancers. The people of higher class appear to have used a dupattā together with sārī. The sleeved tunic, ghāgharā and skirt were the dress for the royal and court ladies. Some of the female figurines have been shown dressed in this fashion53. Women might have adopted some of their dress just for a change. This indicates that the psychological factor also helped in the change of the fashions. The hair arrangement is also unusual though it very much resembles with the style in vogue at present. There is one head54 on which we find a head-dress of Indian character. There is another head over which we find a veil of Hellenistic character. A typical Hellenistic head-dress is found over a terracotta head. The terracotta heads from Kumrahar55 are very interesting as they wear helmet-shaped cap which were worn by Indo-Scythians. A terracotta plaque56 (Arch. 4419) depicting a temple, generally identified with Bodh-Gayā temple, is placed in this period. There is one inscription in khorosthi on this plaque. Sten Konow has read this as ko (thumasa) semghada (sa) sa kiti meaning the work of sanghadasa, the kauthuma, therefore, generally it taken as a import to Pātaliputra. 103 Among the terracotta’s of this period two specimens, now in the Patna Museum, are worth mentioning. One of them a male figure and other is a female. The male, with broad chest, wears a loin cloth reaching down to the knees, which is richly folded and draped-a feature not noticed in pre- Kuṣāṇa terracotta’s, a chain having three strings is also found the waist. The standing female figurine is in tribhanga attitude with her right hand raised in abhaymudra. Here the lion cloth is marked by parallel double lines. The animal figurines like elephants, horses, tigers etc. are noticed57. Birds and fish are also represented58. The terracotta of this group have been found in less quantity as against of terracotta’s of earlier group. But the excavation of Kumrahar has yielded numerous terracotta figurines which definitely belong to this group as they bear un-Indian faces and have been found in association with the Kuṣāṇa coins59. Belwa has yielded a number of Kusana terracotta figurines which are now preserved in the Patna Museum, Patna. The three terracotta heads from Belwa are very interesting as they wear conical head-dress60. A head has typical foreign face with moustaches61. Another figure is shown in European fashion with pendent legs and wearing a skirt clinging to the body62. Another is a female figurine63 with high and small breast holding child (damaged) against her breast. Large cup-shaped depression for naval is clearly visible. She is seated on a cylindrical stool. Religious figurines at Belwa are very few. The best and important specimen is a rectangular slab with seven figures64 which is definitely the earliest representation of Saptamatrikas or seven mothers representing the Saktis or the endowed energies of the important familiar deities’ viz. Brahmānī, Maheśwarī, Kaumārī, Vaiṣṇavī, Varāhī, Indrānī and Chāmuṇḍā. 104 It has no distinguishing symbols or vehicles, but on the basis of style it may be dated in the Kusana period and not in the Gupta period as mentioned in the Patna Museum catalogue of Antiquities65. Besides this, numerous terracotta figurines of Kuṣāṇa period found from Vaiśālī, Sonpur and Chirand are equally interesting. The Gupta and Post-Gupta Terracotta: Under Chandragupta I (320-335), empire was revived in the north. Like Chandragupta Maurya, he first conquered Magadha, set up his capital where the Mauryan capital had stood (Patna), and from this base consolidated a kingdom over the eastern portion of northern India. In addition, Chandragupta revived many of Asoka's principles of government. It was his son, however, Samudragupta (335-376), and later his grandson, Chandragupta II (376-415), who extended the kingdom into an empire over the whole of the north and the western Deccan. Chandragupta II was the greatest of the Gupta kings; called Vikramaditya ("The Sun of Power"), he presided over the greatest cultural age in India. In early Indian history, there are very few periods when a major part of the country was politically united. For about hundred years, after the downfall of the Kuṣāṇas, there was no paramount power in the country and small principalities were engaged in wars forcing north India to witness political chaos and confusion. At this juncture, the Gupta rulers emerged on the scene to unify the scattered political strength and to free the country from foreign subjugation. They provided a strong administration and created an extensive empire which lasted for about three centuries. They extended their imperial hegemony over a greater part to Northern Indian. One of the Gupta emperors, Samudragupta, uprooted the king of the Āryāvarta and conducted expeditions to the South of the Vindhyas. The 105 ṁhala states outside the imperial domain, including island like Si were forced to seek his friendly alliance. His son, Candragupta-II, Vikramāditya, extended the boundaries of the empire to Saurāṣṭra in the west. Under the mighty and illustrious emperors of the Gupta dynasty, Samudragupta, Candragupta Vikramāditya, Kumāragupta and Skandagupta, the country witnessed a transition from darkness to light, from an unsettled, anarchical state of things to well-ordered progress and civilisation. Under their able administration, art, literature, religion and culture attained high glory and spread to every nook and corner of India and also outside in the north across the Himalayas to central Asia, in the south-east across the ocean to the islands of Indonesia or what was then known as Dvīpāntara66. Their patronage to art, literature, music and culture provided impetus to the artist to magnify and manifest the great movement for rhythm and rhyme, beauty and melody and refinement and taste. With the advent of the Gupta power, a fresh art-creativity bloomed forth in north India. Many centers such as Mathura, Ahichchhatra, Srāvastī, Bhita, Kauśāambī, Rajghat, Sarnath, Mason, Pawaya, Kuśīnagar and Bhitari participated in this efflorescence of the terracotta art. Unlike other ages, this art attained a new status in this period, as is evident from the writing of Kālidāsa and Bā ṇa Bhaṭṭa. Clay figurines were employed as a popular and inexpensive medium to convey the message of art and beauty amongst the masses and also to serve their religious and secular needs. It was an age of economic prosperity, all-round development in social life, in administration, in literature, in art creations and in religion and philosophy. The Divyavadāna describes the continent of Jambūdvīpa as the land of populous and peaceful cities teeming with happy millions, of vast and numerous capital towns and villages separated by intervals of space hardly greater than a cock’s flight67. This statement proves that the 106 economic condition of the society was sound and people were living in contentment. This was sufficient for art to flourish and achieve new standards of success. Following a period of strenuous effort art now attained a higher status and form and a tremendous outburst of creative activity that gave birth to a national style of art68. The artists in the Gupta age had assimilated the old art-traditions and culture; their main aim was to develop and portray the art heritage in beautiful forms. Art was now defined as fine art, Lalitkalā69. For the first time, Kālidāsa coined this term and used it in his Raghuvaṁśam; its objective, perhaps, was to manifest the ideal beauty as conceived in the highest form of art, expressed through various art- mediums70. The main characteristic of Gupta art is found in its beauty and beautiful forms. Men and women in that age were art conscious and had an intense desire to worship beauty through the medium of art with all its sanctity; their aim was to create spiritual and aesthetic joy. Kālidāsa termed this beauty of form as Rūpam. At one place in the Kumārasambhavam he makes Pārvatī observe that Cārutā or rūpa is that which bring happiness and welfare to the dear ones71. The ideal of beauty was not to become stale by passage of time but to remain fresh day to day;72 by its very nature, it was opposed to sin73. Perhaps, these were the underlying ideas which found expression in terracotta art of the period. Broadly speaking, there were two major factors that worked for the realisation of art in the Gupta period. One is related to the aesthetic distinction of art creations to which the contemporary literature refers as Rūpa-sattra or Lāvaṇyasattra74. The second factor related to structural aspects of temples75 which soon emerged as a fact of utmost important in the life of the people of the Gupta period76. Many temples, as for example, 107 those at Bhitargaon, Ahichchhatra and Sahet-Mahet were constructed with the help of terracotta panels exhibiting stories, motifs and symbols. In fact, the Gupta modellers had a greater understanding and a deeper insight than the artists of any other age. They understood that the undue importance given to external decoration (alaṅkār or maṅdana) in the earlier ages had marred the elegance of the clay-figurines. They reduced ornamentation to a considerable extent and created objects characterised by simplicity which helps the beholder to appreciated its subtle beauty rather than rove over the details of intricate decoration. Thus, they tried to bring their clientele near the soul of the art. This did not, however, detract from the beauty of art objects, but, imbued it with a peculiar harmony soothing ṣāṇa figurines enhance the to the eyes.77 The rich ornaments on the Ku effect of volume, but betray primitive fashions whereas, the Gupta ornaments, by their lightness and delicate workmanship, impart a graceful effect to the body. The artist no longer depends on volume to give the impression of grandiose forms, but concentrates on elegance.78 The human figures created during the Gupta period, display exceptional beauty and are a source of aesthetic pleasure. The Gupta artist never believed in crude nudity. The transparent drapery on the contemporary figures unlike, the Kuṣāṇa period, never aimed at revealing nudity but exhibit the enhanced loveliness of the modulating lines of the figure. The sensuousness of the female form was, perhaps, restrained by a conscious moral sense and nudity as a rule was discouraged in the art of ṣ āṇa period, standing in this period. The sportive female figures of the Ku various attitudes and exhibiting delicate parts, were things of the past. Agrawala rightly observed that such aggressive beauty was no longer in accord with the spirit of the age in which such greater emphasis was laid on ṣāṇa period the ideal of tapas79. The aim of transparent drapery in the Ku 108 ṣāṇaKu was to reveal the charms. Thus, the crude nudity of the style disappeared in the fleshy and delicate curves of the human anatomy; its aim was to bring happiness and not to lead towards sin. The terracotta art of the Gupta period emerged with a new vigorous life in which a general effort at beautification is evident. To create beautiful forms, vital changes were introduced in the technique. Earlier in the Kuṣāṇa period, modellers were not careful about this aspect which resulted in the manufacture of crude figurines. Since the general taste in the Gupta age became more refined, the demand for charming and elegant objects was hard-pressing and the clay-modellers had to make significant changes in technique. The modellers of this age knew that, for making a beautiful figurine, ṣāṇa the quality of clay was important. They had crude examples of the Ku period and were well aware of the fact that negligence in the preparation of the clay cannot produce the required and desired charm and smoothness. For making the clay sleeky, as appears from the texture of the figurines of the age, it must have been sifted. It was invariably well kneaded and made levigated. Its texture is of superfine quality which helped the modellers in making the desired shapes.80 The technique of moulding which was highly developed during the Śunga period, but was almost extinct in the Kuṣāṇa age, had its revival with the Gupta culture. Single-moulded specimens were produced in abundance. Most of them are detached male and female heads. Standing male and female figures of smaller size were also produced by single-moulds. Although, the technique of single-mould was similar to that of the Śunga period, the Gupta modellers introduced certain modifications. In the earlier periods, the figures were made in semi-relief with an almost flat top surface. The Gupta modellers preferred to give more depth to the 109 background of the mould to create the feeling of modelling in round.81 During the Gupta period, the technique of double-moulding was also improved. Broadly speaking, there were two ways to make figurines out of a pairs of mould, viz. (i) lump of clay pressed between two moulds and (ii) layers of clay pressed separately into two different two moulds, one for the front and other for the back; the two casts were hollow from within, but were subsequently joined and finished. The double-moulded figurines of the Gupta age are in the round as compared to the Śunga double-moulded flat specimens. In the Śunga period, double-mould were used from the front and the back sides, while, the Gupta modellers applied them from the sides as well.82 Male and female heads with attractive hairdo, the famous Buddha-head and the horse-rider83 of Bharat Kala Bhavan are the best examples of this technique. From this period, examples of partly handmade and partly moulded technique are also available. Generally, this technique was employed to prepare life-size images and to make idols in big panels. However, figurines smaller in dimension, were also made in this technique. This Naigameśa and Naigameśī figurines of the Bharat Kala Bhavan are the surviving examples of this technique.84 In spite of all technical advancement, some crude and completely hand-modelled specimens have also been reported. Many Naigameśa figures from Rajghat are good examples of this workmanship. They are hand-modelled, have no finger- marks and exhibit fine curves of the bodies relived therein. But they are not as crude and bad looking as the Maurya and Kuṣāṇa figurines are.85 Like other aspects of the technique, the process of firing was also improved. The baking of the figurines depended much on their size and use. Generally, the figurines of this period were not over baked and their colour is red or biscuit-red. Brick panels were baked to extra hardness.86 At 110 times, figures were not baked at all.87 The Gupta modeller was not only conscious of beautiful human forms, he also tried to make his art objects more attractive by applying strips of different colours. Rajghat has produced many specimens which fall in this group.88 The architectural panels and life-size images are another significant feature of the Gupta terracotta art. It was realized that this humble medium could be utilized in the construction of massive temples. The temples of Bhitargaon, Sahet-Mahet, Ahichchhatra, etc. confirm that the architectural panels bearing different scenes were durable and helped in the progress of ṅgā and the art movement. The free-standing terracotta figures of Ga Yamunā from Ahichchhatra also show that the Gupta modellers were not lagging behind the sculpotors, rather, in certain respect they had an edge over the latter. Agrawala rightly remarks that “The Structural temple became a regular feature of the popular artistic movement which gave rise to the perfection of the image on the one hand and to the full development of the decorative motif and symbols on the other.”89 The practice of using decorative panels with Rāmāyaṇa scenes on the outer walls of the temple was not confined to India. Coomaraswamy has reported that in Java, panels of Rāmāyaṇa stories were fixed in the basement of the temples.90 Dasgupta is of the view that the idea of decorating the outer walls of a temple with the Rāmāyaṇa scenes went to the Far East from north India, possibly, sometime after the Gupta period.91 During the Gupta period, some narrative architectural panels were also made. Their purpose was twofold, to serve as an architectural medium and to educate people about the various episodes connected with gods and goddesses. The method of narrating a story or event is simple and direct. Like the lithic art of the Śunga sculptors. Some selected spots of the story were depicted in the panels and were fixed in continuation. Generally, these 111 panels are complete in themselves in regard to the story or theme and the next incident starts with the next panel. Several such architectural panels have been reported from Sahet-Mahet, Bhitargaon, Kushinagar, Ahichchhatra, etc., in which scenes connected with the stories of Rāma, Kṛṣṇa, Śiva and Buddha have been depicted in this manner. The famous terracotta panel depicting the fight between Sugrīva and Virūpāk ṣa from ṇas scrambling for s weets, the Sahet-Mahet92, the panel depicting the Ga Mahābhārata scenes from Ahichchhatra93 and the Bhitargaon panels depicting Rāmāyaṇa scenes are the best examples of the practice of narrating the stories without showing the main actor. In the Śunga period, at least, the main character was always present in the scene and the story or event was narrated by creating the atmosphere and depicting other salient features connected with it. But, in the Gupta period, the regular presence of the main actor was not felt necessary. This practice, perhaps, could be adopted due to the wide popularity of the stories; for understanding the scene, no indicator in the form of the main actor was needed. After a period of hard labour, art now attained a higher status and the style, as in the case of the Śunga and Kuṣāṇa terracottas, became universal. Whether they worked on the scenes on the architectural panels or individual figures of male and female, the modellers of all centres in different regions of India followed the same well-defined formulae. Perhaps, due to this very reason, a great similarity is marked on the terracotta figurines of different regions. It seems that the style was formulated under certain directives from influential people or authorities of importance which the artists of different regions had to follow. Although, nothing definite can be suggested about the introduction of this new national style, there is no doubt about its maturity, refindness, perfection and universal approach. The terracotta style was universal, but local effect 112 in regard to subject-matter was not ignored. This local colour, however, did not put any obstruction in the progress of the art-movement; rather, it added some additional charm to it. We have seen that with the modellers of the ṣāṇa Ku period, third dimension was not a problem; they produced many Yakṣa figures and male and female heads in the round. In the ordinary course, a wider popularity of this technique was expected in the Gupta period. But, the actual practice was quite different. The three dimensional approach of the Gupta modellers was now applied to bigger figures of life-size-images. The smaller figures found from Rajghat, Ahichchhatra, Mason, etc., are strictly two- dimensional. But their two-dimensional approach is quite different from that of the Śunga period. The two-dimensional figures of the Śunga period were made with flat reliefs, but, in the Gupta period they were produced out of moulds which had more depth and had provision for more space for the figure to develop. In fact, the Gupta modellers conceived the forms in terms of depth and not in terms of surface treatment as was done in Śunga ṣāṇa period, with the result that period and later, to some extent, in the Ku the Gupta figures do not look like trays packed with all kinds of forms; they give an impression of roundness. The charming male and female heads94 are the best examples of this approach and technique. There is another significant difference between the Śunga and Gupta-modellers. The Śunga-modellers did not shape their figures in sizes varying according to their nearness or distance as optically required but moulded in accordance with the functional importance of each object. But the Gupta modellers did not follow this technique. They took special care in depicting figures. The figures were shown on the panels according to their importance and their size was accordingly reduced or increased. This norm was applicable to all types of figures whether appearing on the architectural panels of 113 Ahichchhatra,95 Sahet-Mahet96, and Kushinagar97or on smaller tablets depicting the Dharmacakrapravartana scene98. Iconographically also, the Gupta terracotta art attained an unprecedented height. We know from the Purā ṇ as, the extent to which cosmogonic myths and legends and developed, reflecting the numerous patterns of Hindu religious thought. The Gupta modeller gave visible expression to the Purāṇic concepts through the medium of clay. From the point of view of iconographic norms, the Gupta period was more advanced than the Kuṣāṇa period. During the Kuṣāṇa p eriod, the Buddhist figurines were made only at a few centres and their iconographical features were confined to standing Bodhisattva, Vasudhārā and Kubera and Hārītī figures. The Gupta modeller was not satisfied with these figures alone. In his art, not only the nativity scene of the Buddha99 found place, but other forms, such as Dhyānī Buddha100, Buddha in Dharmacakra-pravartana- mudrā101, Buddha in Bhūmisparśamudrā102, standing Buddha103, and Buddha with chauri-bearer, were also depicted. The making of these Buddha figures was also not confined to a few places. Several centres, such as Kushinagar, Ahichchatra and Rajghat joined the same movement. In the Gupta period, Bhāgavata-cult became very popular and its iconography was further oriented. The figures of Viṣṇu with four arms104, Viṣṇu killing Madhu and Kaiṭabha105 a few incarnations of Viṣṇu 106, Viṣṇu reclining on the serpent-coil, Viṣṇu with eight arms, Trimukhī (Vaikuṇṭha) Viṣṇu and Nṛsiṁha Viṣṇu were some of the forms which attracted the modellers of the period. Some other images of the Bhāgavata-cult were also shaped. Of these, mention may be made of ṛṣṇalīla the K scenes depicting Yaśodā and K ṛṣṇa, Nāga and Nāgī worshipping Kṛṣṇa, Kṛṣṇa killing Vṛṣāsura and Balarāma subduing Pralamba. Although the Gupta kings were Bhāgavites, they gave equal support to other sects, including 114 Śaivism and Śāktism. They named one Gupta prince as Skandagupta after Skanda, the son of Śiva. Kālidāsa and Bāṇabhaṭṭa have referred to this sect in their works. Though the representation of Śiva and Śakti had started in an earlier period, its complex iconographical development took place in the Gupta period. The outlook of the Kuṣāṇa modeller was limited and lacked iconographical advancement; the modeller made only Śiva heads, Ekamukhiliṅgas, Mahiṣāsurmardinī and Cāmuṇdā figures. In the Gupta age the Śaiva figures were not limited to any particular aspect. The modeller’s horizon was widened and he conceived iconographical aspects such as Saṃhāra, Anugraha and other images. Now in terracotta, Śiva is not represented alone but along with Pārvatī107, her two sons, Kārttikeya108 and Gaṇeśa109, and his many other images are also made. The modellers also successfully depicted Aradhanārīśvara, Dak ṣiṇāmūrti, Bhikṣāṭanamūrti, Bhairava, Lakulīśa and Liṅgam forms of this god. Further, his Gaṇas and their activities were also depicted. The modeller also portrayed the figure of Mahiṣāsuramardinī, Durgā, Cāmuṇdā and Kotavī. The river goddesses Gaṅgā and Yamunā, goddess Saraswatī and Uṣā were also represented in terracotta with their proper attributes. Kubera, Naigameśa and Vidyādharas were also recognised by the Gupta modellers. And above all, the scenes from the Rāmāyaṇa were taken into account. The Jain figures, which were absent in the terracottas of the early period are also noiced in the Gupta age. Sahani identified Ṛṣabhanātha, a devotee and a bull on one of the defaced figures of Sarnath. All this shows that the people in the Gupta period were very much religious-minded. The economic prosperity and the religious freedom, perhaps, led to the development of different iconographical forms and to the making of images on a grand scale. Agrawala has rightly observed that “This cultural efflorescence – accompanied by an economic prosperity – was the direct 115 result of a spiritual earnestness, the like of which had seldom been seen before, in India.”110 But all this is not to be taken to imply that the Gupta modellers were interested only in religious figures. They took equal interest in depicting various aspects of the contemporary social life. In fact, it was in secular figurines that the Gupta modeller had more freedom to exercise his genius and potentialities. With religious figures, he had to work under certain restrictions, whereas, in making secular figurines, he was free to give his mental flight a concrete form. He studied the various aspects of the social life and gave them a proper shape in his art. The secular objects created by the Gupta modeller are in no way inferior to the religious figurines. Through these secular objects, he presented a panorama of contemporary Indian life, exhibiting kings and princes, common house-holders, beggars, sages, soldiers and monks. If, at one place, he projected the hardships of the lower class people, at another he did not fail to portray fashionable ladies gorgeous men and people enjoying life in different ways. Through these secular figurines, the modeller satisfied the needs of the people and presented the lively picture of their habits, moods and tastes. Agrawala rightly observes that “Many details of Gupta life are preserved in art and great and small objects of stone and clay, besides their moving loveliness, also appear as documents of social culture.”111 The main Quality of the Gupta terracotta art lies in its elegance and balance. The modeller seems to have been extremely careful about art- objects. He never compromised with outer decoration at the cost of its elegance. He depended more on his artistic ability than on adopting an easier course to produce objects. Hence, the figures he prepared are perfect in line and elegant in appearance. These figures exhibit movement, proportion and balance and also the perfection of the line and maturity of 116 the artist’s mind. The great frescoes and charming lyrical pieces and smaller terracottas were the results of a common art-inspiration through which the spirit of renaissance made itself eloquent. Agrawala rightly observed that “There is nothing great or small which the hands of the Gupta artists touched and did not adorn.”112 The richness of Gupta terracotta art lies in the simplicity of style and felicity of expression. Through the artist’s simple but perfect lines, great ideas were given concrete forms and harmony was established between the outer form and the inner meaning, knitted together like body and mind. In the words of Agrawala “The concise formula of ‘knit like Word and Sense” (Vāgarthāviva Sampṛktau) represents the ideal of harmony and synthesis achieved in this period in many spheres of thought and life and not the least in the domain of art.”113 The modeller seems to have been fully aware of the effect of the sensuous and materialistic life, as also of Divine path. He honored the two and introduced a style in which both were intermingled like body and flesh. It is, perhaps, for this reason that Gupta art pieces are soothing to the eyes and refreshing to the mind and soul. Their effect is lasting and the ultimate goal is sinless. It appears that men and women of the Gupta period were extremely art-conscious and worshipped that kind of beauty which was noble, elevating and virtuous. It is rightly claimed that “The path of beauty is the path of Virtue.”114 With this guiding impulse of life, the modellers along with other artists, worked to achieve beautiful and elegant forms. It is not hard to find out their competence, sincerity of purpose and success in the mission. They have imparted such refined and pleasing beauty to these figures that they present “a feast of beauty to the eye”115 117 This period is regarded as the golden age of Indian culture. The high points of this cultural creativity are magnificent and creative architecture, sculpture, and painting. The wall-paintings of Ajanta Cave in the central Deccan are considered among the greatest and most powerful works of Indian art. The paintings in the cave represent the various lives of the Buddha, but also are the best source we have of the daily life in India at the time. There are forty-eight caves making up Ajanta, most of which were carved out of the rock “between” 460 - 480 A.D. and they are filled with Buddhist sculptures. The rock temple at Elephanta (near Bombay) contains a powerful, eighteen foot statue of the three-headed Shiva, one of the principal Hindu gods. Each head represents one of Shiva's roles: that of creating, that of preserving, and that of destroying. The period also saw dynamic building of Hindu temples. All of these temples contain a hall and a tower. The Gupta age is famous in Indian History for its glorious art, literature and science. The terracotta’s of this age are more human and less sophisticated. These have been found from Kumrahar, Patna (Pātaliputra), Buxar, Vaiśālī, Belwa and Bodh Gayā. These terracotta figurines, like the earlier ones, may also be divided into three groups – human figurines, animal figurines and bird figurines. Human figurines may further sub divided into two groups – religious and secular. Numerous religious figurines have been found, of which special mention may be made of figurines of Buddha116, Bodhisatvas117, and Saptamatrikas118. Many terracotta figurines of the secular groups have also been found, of which special mention may be made of two figurines, one showing a heavy wig119 and other showing a veil120. This terracotta’s have been found from period IV (300 A.D. - 450 A.D.) which has also yielded coins of Chandragupta II 118 and terracotta sealing in the Gupta character. Therefore these terracotta are definitely of Gupta period. The Gupta terracotta’s are less in number in comparison of the terracotta‘s belonging to the pre-Maurya, Maurya and the Śunga periods. The terracotta of this period have far more finished style, but gradually it was becoming unpopular. The terracotta’s were prepared entirely with the help of the moulds. The main feature of this terracotta’s is that some of them are painted. During this period, plaques of large size were made, but small plaques were also used. Plaques of light weight having light ochre colour were prepared in this period. The head in these cases is massive and the body is hollow.121 Such heads are moulded in two parts, front and back, separately and joined together, where as there are also attempts at the moulding the two halves separately and joining them along the ridge of nose grooves, holes in the nostrils and at the corner of the mouth seem to have been depend after moulding. Moreover the technique and style is also typical in this character. One of the finest and more artistic terracotta’s found from Kumrahar is he bust of a male figure,122 having broad fore-head, with a ribbon going around and hair above the head rose upwards and matted in several groups. Eye brows, eyes, nose and ears are very prominent. Lips are closed and moustaches are thick and upraised. The head is slightly bent to the left and the facial expression shows gravity. The figure is as such very artistic. The head of female having half closed eyes representing a peaceful mood is no less important.123 Her hair is arranged in a honey-combed style tied at the back in a juda style with a string. From Chausa a terracotta plaque depicting the Ramayana scene has been found which is preserved in the Patna Museum124. 119 Mention may be made of a head from Belwa which may be dated in 5th-6th century A.D. in the Patna Museum Catalogue125 it is mentioned as male head but on close examination of the head it appears to be female head. The physiognomy which is characterised by a snub nose and thick lips, suggests that she is of Negroid origin. M.K. Dhavalikar is of the opinion that she may be a slave girl who may have been brought to India by some Iranian merchant or a dignitary in his retinue126. We have several religious figurines of this period from the Kumarahar excavation, e.g. those of Vishnu, Buddha, Ganesa, Chamunda as well as Nagadeva now decorating the Archaeological gallery of Chandradhari Museum, Darbhanga. Another piece which depicts three women in sitting pose may be identified as the figurines of the Divine Mothers. In non-religious, the hair styles of male figurines are unique. In the figurines, a part of their hair is tied in a knot at the top and a part falling on either side in spiral curls. However, the most interesting specimens, of this period are the terracotta plaques, with figurines in half relief, probably made for the decoration of the outer face of the temple wall and in certain cases only for the decoration. On the upper part of plaque from Kumrahar a deer is represented. In another plaque a headless flying Vidyadhara has been represented. Various types of animal figurines have been found which includes elephants, horses, monkeys and crocodiles127. Beside these, several bird figurines have been found128. Apart from all these, some figurines of tortoise belonging to this period have also been noticed129. The recent excavation at Kumrahar has, however many terracotta figurines, of which some may be ascribed to this group. 120 Thus in this period we find the beginning of new technique of making terracotta’s with the help of moulds, though handmade terracotta’s are also noticed. The statement of Jain sources is confirmed by the observation of Yuan Chwang that there existed a humble township with a population of only about 1,000 at the time of his visit to Pātaliputra in c. 637 A.D. The excavation at Kumrahar also showed that the area was deserted from about 600 A.D. to. 1600 A.D. Dr. B. P. Sinha suggested that Pātaliputra continued to be the capital of the early Pālas. The description of Pātaliputra in the same record as a place where the brightness of the day light was darkened by the packed arrays of rutting elephants, where the firmament is rendered green by the dust dug up the hoofs of innumerable horses belonging to many kings of the north, and where the earth bent under the limitless foot-soldiers of all the king of Jambudvīpa assembled to render homage to Dharamapāladeva, would no doubt suggest that Pātaliputra was the capital of Dharampāla, since his feudatories had assembled there to pay him homage. But the copper plate’s expreslsly describes Pātaliputra as a skandhāvāra or camp and, it is well known to the student of Ancient Indian History how the feudatories could meet their overlord at any place where he might be camping during his campaigns. The Khalimpur Cooper plate would thus only show that Pātaliputra was recovering rapidly from its calamities and the Pālas were often encamping there during their campaigns or tours. We have so far recovered no inscriptions, and terracottas from Pāla period from Patna proper and excavations shows that the Kumrahar site was not in occupation during the Pāla period. This trend contained in the Pala period. Large brick plaques of this period discovered from Vikramsila Mahavidyalaya site at Antichak in Bhagalpur district of Bihar. These plaques portarcy a variety of subjects 121 religious and non religious, depicting in a vivid manner showing the different typer and classes of men and women, their dresses, activities, occupation, social life with all its joys and sorrows, their sports, pastions, assuments and entertainment, religious faiths and beliefs, divine and semi divine images, popular tales and othner stories current among the common people etc, as well as the animals, birds, fish etc. familier to them. The terracotta plaques representing religious figure depict in a majority of the cases the figures of the Buddhist god and goddess: the Buddha, Bodhisattvas and other minor divinities in various postures and depictingvarious attitudes. The aforesaid survey of ancient terracotta in Bihar right from the Neolithic period down to the early medieval period around 11th-12th Century A.D. has brought into focus certain features or elements peculiar to the terracotta forms of this region. In fact, Bihar had contributed much in the field of terracotta art and it has led from forefront even in this medium. ----------.---------- References:- 1. J.U.P.H.S., Vol. IX, Pt. II, 1936, p.7. 2. Museum of Fine Arts Bulletin, Bulletin No. 152, p.96. 3. I.A.-AR, 1955-56, pl. XXXII, A. 4. Journal of Bihar Research Society, Vol. VII LVI, p. 29, Pl. X nos, 1,2,3,5 and 6, Prajña Bhārati, vol. VII, p. 76, pl. before p. 77. 5. Prajña Bhārati, vol. V, Pl. I 6. Prasad, Ajit Kumar, Excavations at Taradih, Bodh Gaya in Archaeology and Art, ed.by C.P. Sinha, p. 608. 7. Prajña Bhārati, vol. VII, plate facing page 76. 8. Ernst, Fischer, The Necessity of Art, p 35. 122 9. Prajña Bhārati, vol. V, Pl. I (IV). 10. Ibid 11. I. A. – AR, 1955-56, pl. XXXII, A 12. Patna Museum Arch. Nos. 4171-74, 9562. 13. Verma, Nisha, The Terracottas of Bihar, pl. XIII, fig. (PM. Arch No. 4332). 14. Narian, L. A. and Sinha, B. P., Pataliputra Excavations, pl. X(4). 15. Narian, L. A. and Sinha, B. P., Pataliputra Excavations, pl. X(1) and (3). 16. Ibid, pl. X (2). 17. Ibid, pl, XV. 18. Sinha, B. P., Archaeology and Art of India-Buxar Terracotta, pl. 38. 19. Sinha, C. P., Excavations at Buxar in the Journal of the Bihar Puravid Parishad, Vol. VII-VIII, p. 215. 20. Sinha, B. P., “Recent Enrichment of Art Treasure in Bihar”, published in Sanskrit Sangam, July-Dec., 1987, p. 62. 21. Ibid, Arch Nos. 8801, 9028, 8583, 87654 etc. 22. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 8865 and 9060 etc. 23. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 9473. 24. JISOA, vol. III, p.126, Terracotta Dug out at Patna by K.P.Jaiswal. 25. Patna Museum, Arch No. 4226. 26. Patna Museum, Arch No. 4178. 27. Patna Museum, Arch No. 28. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 8925, 5855, 6778, 9095, 8801,9509 etc. 29. Das Gupta, C.C., Origin and Evolution of Indian Clay-Sculpture, p.164. 30. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 9563, 9513 etc. 123 31. Ray, N. R., Maurya and Śunga Art, p. 66. 32. J. Marshall. A Guide to Sanchi, 1955, p. 83. 33. Das Gupta, C.C., Origin and Evolution of Indian Clay-Sculpture, p.167. 34. Sahay, S.N., The Comprehensive History Of Bihar, Vol. I, part II. p.64. 35. Coomaraswamy, A.K., La Sculpture De Bodh-Gayâ, Pl. LIII.2. 36. Patna Museum, Arch No. 8570. 37. Patna Museum, Arch No. 9586. 38. Patna Museum, Arch No. 9473. 39. Coomaraswamy, 2, pp.70-72, fig-43. 40. Altekar, A.S. and Mishra, V.K., Kumrahar Excavation Report, p.112. 41. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 6678, 4249, 8780, 6088, 4263 etc. 42. Ibid, Arch Nos. 9256, 8865, 6090 etc. 43. Ibid, Arch Nos. 1899, 2668. 44. Rai, Krishnadasa, JUPHS, Vol. XVIII, pp. 86-87; also see Kala, S. C., Terracotta figurine from Kauśāmbī, p. 40. Pl. XXXII-A 45. Srivastava, S. K., Prajnā, Vol. XI (1), Oct. 1965. 46. Marshal, J., Excavation at Bhita, ASIAR for 1911-12, 1915, Pl. XXIII-17 47. Kala, S. C., Terracotta Figurine from Kauśāmbī, p. 31. 48. Ray, N. R., The Age of Imperial Unity, p. 519. 49. Das Gupta, C.C., Origin and Evolution of Indian Clay-Sculpture, p.190. 50. Saraswati, S.K. A survey of Indian Sculpture, p.125. 51. Deva, Krishana and Mishra, V.K., Vaishālī Excavation Report, Pl.XV 1.3. 124 52. Ibid, P. XIII 4 Pl. XVIII, Fig. 2. 53. Sahay, S.N., Indian Costume, Coiffure and Ornaments, p.41. 54. Marshall, Excavation at Taxila, ASIAR, Pl. VI.a 55. Kumrahar, Excavation Report, Pl. XXXvi, B. nos. 1&2. 56. Patna Museum, Arch No. 4419. 57. Altekar, A.S. & Mishra, V.K., Report on Kumrahar Excavation, Pl. LIII. A.S. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 8675, 8924, 6095, 4406, 2680, 1897. 58. Kumrahar, Excavation Report, Pl. LVII. 1-4, Patna Museum, Arch No. 1900. 59. Sahay, S.N., The Comprehensive history of Bihar, p.645. 60. Patna Museum Arch. Nos. 5280, 2891, 2892. 61. Patna Museum Arch. Nos. 2887. 62. Patna Museum Arch. Nos. 2995. 63. Patna Museum Arch. Nos. 2941. 64. Gupta, P. L., (ed.), Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, pp. 289 (Arch. No. 2869). 65. Gupta, P. L., (ed.), Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, pp. 286. 66. Agrawala, V. S.,, Gupta Art, p.1. 67. Divyavadāna, p. 316; also see Agrawala, V. S., Gupta Art, p. 2. 68. Agrawala, V. S., Gupta Art, p. 1. 69. Kālidāsa, Raghuvaṁśam, Sarga VIII.67. 70. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.374. 71. Kālidāsa, Kumārasambhavam, Sarga V.1. 72. Māgha, Ṥiśupālavadha, Sarga IV. 17. 73. Kālidāsa, Kumārasambhavam, Sarga V. 36. 74. Varāhamihira, Bṛhatsaṁhitā, Ch. 105. 75. Agrawala, V. S., Gupta Art, p. 3. 125 76. Ibid. 77. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.375. 78. Agrawala, V. S., Gupta Art, p. 98. 79. Ibid. P.24. 80. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.378. 81. Ibid., p. 379. 82. Ibid. 83. Ibid. Figs, 553-558, 548 and 582. 84. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.379. 85. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.379. 86. Ibid., p. 380. 87. Nagar, M. M., Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Ke Baudha Tirtha -2 Siksha Series-4, Fig. 12. 88. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p.380. 89. Agrawala, V. S., Gupta Art, p.3. 90. Coomaraswamy, A., History of Indian and Indonesian Art, p. 80. 91. Dasgupta, C. C., Origin and Evolution of Indian Clay Scul[pture, p.226. 92. Srivastava, S. K., An Episode from Rāmāyaṇa on a Terracotta Panel, Purātattva, 1967-68, No.1. 93. Agrawala, V. S., Ancient India, No. 4 Figs. 299 and 304. 94. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, Figs. 553-559 and 561-564. 95. Agrawala, V. S.,, Ancient India, No. 4 Figs. 136,298 and 299. 96. Vogel, J. Ph., ASIAR, 1907-08, 1911, Pl. XXVII. 97. Nagar, M. M., Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Ke Baudha Tirtha, Fig. 16 98. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, Fig. 546. 126 99. Nagar, M. M., Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Ke Baudha Tirtha-2, p.10 Fig.16. 100. Ibid. Fig. 11. 101. Srivastava, S. K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, Fig. 547; also see Nagar, M. M., Kushinagar, Uttar Pradesh Ke Baudha Tirtha-2, Fig. 17. 102. Preserved in the Lucknow Museum, Lucknow. 103. Ibid. No. 114. 104. Agrawala, V. S., JUPHS, Vol. IX, Fig.54. 105. A. Cunningham, CASIR, Vol XI, 1880. Pl. XVII. 106. Agrawala, V. S., JUPHS, Vol. IX, Fig. 55; also see P.L.Gupta, Gangetic Valley Terracotta Art, p. 84. 107. Agrawala, V. S., Ancient India, No. 4 Fig. 114a. 108. Srivastava, S.K., Chhavi: Golden Jubilee Volume, p. 539. 109. Ibid., Fig. 540; also see J. Ph. Vogel, ASIAR, 1908-09, 1912. 110. Agrawala, V. S.,, Gupta art, p.1. 111. Ibid., p.2. 112. Ibid., p. 2. 113. Ibid., p. 2. 114. Ibid., p. 99. 115. Agrawala, V. S.,, Gupta art, p. 52. 116. Patna Museum, Arch No. 4419. 117. Ibid, Arch Nos. 4401-02, 4405, 2870. 118. Ibid, Arch No. 2869. 119. Ibid, Arch No. 4316. 120. Ibid, Arch No. 4315. 121. Sahay, S.N., The Comprehensive history of Bihar, p.635. 127 122. Kumrahar, Excavation Report, Pl. XXXVII, Fig. 9. 123. Kumrahar, Excavation Report, Pl. XLI. 124.Gupta, P. L., (ed.), Patna Museum Catalogue of Antiquities, p. 1, Arch. No. 6528. 125.Ibid., p. 288. (Arch. No. 2870). 126. Dhavalikar, M. K., Masterpieces of Indian Terracottas, p. 61. 127. Patna Museum, Arch Nos. 4412, 6683, 1903, 2012-2026 etc. 128. Ibid, Arch Nos. 1902, 8557 etc. 129. Ibid, Arch No. 1904. ----------------.---------------- 128

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