Understanding The Client System PDF

5 UNDERSTANDING THE CLIENT SYSTEM Once we are convinced that there is sufficient commitment to change...

5 UNDERSTANDING THE CLIENT SYSTEM Once we are convinced that there is sufficient commitment to change and that the task is clear, the next stage of the consultancy is gaining understanding of the client system. This is like being a detective. It involves locating the CSO within a wider system of contextual influences. THE PROCESS OF CHANGE 3 Inspiring change 4 2 Planning for implementation Understanding the client system 5 Accompanying 1 implementation Engaging THE the client CONSULTANT This chapter explores good practice consultancy to gain understanding by: Analysing the wider system within which the CSO operates, including its external relationships and local culture ‘Looking below the waterline’ to read the organisational culture. So much of what goes on in an organisation happens under the surface. What is visible may bear little resemblance to the real situation. Gathering information from a variety of sources using different methods and tools, including discernment Using simple frameworks to make sense of the situation Facilitating collaborative self-diagnosis by the client so that they continue to own the change. It may be important to withhold our analysis to allow the organisation to understand itself better and prioritise its own issues to work on. 58 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 59 In seeking to understand the client system, we would do well to heed Gareth Morgan’s advice: ‘If one truly wishes to “If one truly wishes APPRECIATING THE WIDER CONTEXT understand an organisation, it is much wiser to start from the to understand an ‘General Systems Theory… says that each variable in any system interacts with the premise that they are complex, ambiguous and paradoxical’ other variables so thoroughly that cause and effect cannot be separated. A simple (Morgan, 1996). We know how complex one individual can be. organisation, it is variable can be both cause and effect. Reality will not be still. And it cannot be taken apart. You cannot understand a cell, a rat, a brain structure, a family, a culture if you When you put a group of people together in an organisation, the complexity increases exponentially. CSOs are even more much wiser to start isolate it from its context. Relationship is everything.’ difficult to read because they have no easily measureable from the premise that (Marilyn Ferguson quoted in The Barefoot Guide 2, 2011:128) bottom-line, they have a voluntary element and they are often an intermediary between donors and beneficiaries. When they are complex, It is the same with CSOs. No organisation is an island. Every organisation is profoundly affected by its context, the other organisations and situations McKinsey, a leading private-sector management consulting firm, did some work in the non-profit sector a few years ago, it ambiguous and it relates to. Events in the community, the country, and changes in international relationships all have an influence. To understand a CSO, expressed surprise: ‘Almost everything about building capacity paradoxical.” we need to situate it within the web of Its inter-connected relationships. in non-profits takes longer and is more complicated than one would expect’ (McKinsey, 2001). So, in seeking to understand Organisations are also products of their local environments. Just as plants any organisation, it is good to realise how partial and limited will grow differently in different soils, so organisations will be different in our understanding may be. different places. They cannot help but incorporate the values and norms of their local environment. In the ten years I worked in Malawi, almost every NGO I worked in also reflected the dependence, fear and insecurity characteristic of wider society. 60 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 61 LOOKING BELOW THE WATERLINE DATA GATHERING METHODS Much of what happens in any organisation goes on under the surface. What Obviously, the type of consultancy influences which methods are most appropriate we can see (websites, reports, organisation charts, constitutions, mission for data gathering. This section focuses on useful methods for gathering data statements, proposals, plans) are only a fraction of what is really going on. about the organisation and its behaviour. The methods used for evaluating a Just as a CV does not give us a complete understanding of a person, so what community development project, for example, will be quite different, though we can see of an organisation may bear little relation to the real situation. following similar principles. Common to all is the value in gathering information in To appreciate what makes an organisation tick, where the life force is, what a variety of ways. If the different methods come up with similar conclusions, they values are lived out in practice, we have to look below the surface. We have are likely to be accurate. to read the culture of the organisation (which people describe as ‘a pattern Some of the common data gathering methods that we explore further include: of learnt underlying assumptions about how to behave’ or simply ‘the way we do things round here’). The informal but influential things, such as the Documents, both public and internal way people relate unofficially, the political manoeuvring, the personalities Observation involved, the ways decisions are made, the role that women play... occur Semi-structured interviews below the waterline. Organisations can resemble a hippo in this regard. Focus group discussions To help organisations change, we need to find Group exercises – timelines, rich pictures, sculpting, matrix ranking out what the hippo looks like below the waterline. Consultants are first asked to look at the presenting Surveys and questionnaires problem – a surface concern. As we delve and find out DOCUMENTS more, we discover that this is just a symptom of something The public face of an organisation is an obvious starting point – seeing what we deeper. Unless we engage below the waterline, we may limit can find on the web, in reports, in proposals, in strategy papers and in evaluations. ourselves to superficial and cosmetic efforts at change. Programme evaluations, if they exist, are ideal, as they should analyse what is The analogy of a hippo also helps us appreciate how sensitive and actually happening in practice and what impact this has had. Evaluations shed light even dangerous this process is. Hippos, like organisations, do not like to be on whether or not an organisation is achieving its mission. Public documents, such exposed, which is why they only come out on land at night in order to eat. as annual reports and accounts, can be important sources of information too. If an If they get frightened and there is someone between them and the water, organisation has the self-awareness and self-assurance to be honestly self-critical they charge for the safety of the river (often crushing the person on the in its marketing and public relations information, this says a lot about how strong way). I can think of a few occasions when organisations (leaders especially) it is. have charged for safety in the midst of a workshop when the real, rather The financial statements are an invaluable source of revealing information, than the hoped-for, culture is exposed. but one that few consultants use as much as we should. Tracing the sources of To understand any organisation we have to read the politics. In some money can be a good way to understand why an organisation behaves as it does. contexts, the political and religious dynamics play a particularly important Assumptions about what donors want and do not want can have a major influence role. They can affect the development vision of the country, the identity and on an organisation. Good reading of accounts can expose many supposedly hidden affiliation of the CSO, the services they offer and the relationships between issues. On one occasion, I was working with an NGO on its strategy. I skipped their different stakeholders. Uncovering the complex political and religious through the audited accounts and marked with a highlighter pen a very large dynamics can shed light on important issues including the purpose behind outstanding loan to the gender officer. I then forgot about it, until some weeks a service offered, the qualifications of the staff hired, and even the real later I discovered that there were major internal conflicts and leadership issues. reason for contracting a consultant. Staff felt the gender officer was wielding too much power – a consequence of her having an affair with the director. It was all there in the accounts if I had bothered As Cockman points out: ‘Ultimately the success of a consulting project will to follow up. depend not only on how you handle the purely technical problem, but also on how comfortable you are dealing with the data you collect about the Internal documents, minutes of meetings, draft concept notes and even email human beings who will be affected and their relationships with each other’ exchanges may all shed light on what is really going on. (Cockman et al., 1992: 109). Consultants to CSOs often work with people who feel disempowered. The consultancy may have a role in supporting their efforts to identify and use the power that they have. Talking about power, in a way that makes power transparent and conscious, is a good way of helping people to appreciate the power they have and to use it more positively. In any consultancy, it is important to understand the internal power dynamics (including aspects such as gender). If our consultancy is to catalyse change, this will affect and be affected by the rest of the organisation. We need to see how our work with one department will affect other departments. We need to understand who makes decisions, how and why. 62 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 63 OBSERVATION GROUP DISCUSSIONS We can tell a lot about an organisation by what we see. We can observe Focus group discussions are another way of eliciting information. This how people relate to each other and the leadership. We see who talks in involves sitting with a few people to look at a particular topic together. meetings and how; and who does not talk and what is not said. Possibly The benefit is that we can hear from a number of people at the same the best way to understand leadership in a CSO is to sit in and observe a time. They can build on each other’s ideas, deepening the analysis management team meeting. We can also learn a lot from the notices and and sharing conclusions. But there are also costs in terms of people’s posters displayed on the walls. The layout of the offices, the ways things openness in a group and the inability to probe further with specific are stored, and the tidiness, all tell a story. individuals. Earlier this year I was visiting a large church in Kenya. I saw Swedish However, even more important than the questions we ask is the way we and Norwegian flags displayed in many offices. It turned out that one listen. Active listening is a vital skill that facilitators need in order to read of the core issues of this church was a split identity. The Kenyan church an organisation. The Community Development Resource Association had been formed by the merger of a number of Swedish missionary- (CDRA) in South Africa has done a lot of work on this. It talks about the led churches with Norwegian missionary-led churches. While such importance of listening on three levels (see textbox below). It advises us observation data is highly subjective and can easily be misinterpreted, it to listen actively to the thoughts, to the feelings and to the intentions can raise questions at least for us to probe in semi-structured interviews. behind people’s responses. SEMI-STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS Consultants have to be good questioners. Semi-structured interviews THREE WAYS TO LISTEN are one of the most commonly used methods for gaining understanding. ‘Listening to the head’ – the thinking level – to thoughts, facts, concepts, Interviews with staff, leadership, board members, donors, beneficiaries arguments, ideas and the principles behind these. This is the most or other stakeholders often form the bulk of the data gathering process. obvious way to listen and the one we are most familiar with. It is useful to develop a short series of questions to give some structure ‘Listening to the heart’ - the feeling level - to feelings, emotions, mood, to the interviews, but also to give ourself the freedom to probe further experience and the values behind these. Listening to feelings can give us and make up new questions as we go along. important clues about what really matters. Strongly expressed or strongly Effective questions are powerful and thought-provoking, without denied feelings can provide fruitful entry points to the key issues that being too aggressive. They are questions that ask ‘what?’ or ‘how?’ lie behind experiences. These may be ‘heard’ more through the tone of rather than ‘why?’ (which tends to put people on the defensive). It voice, facial expression, gesture, etc than through what is actually said. can be surprisingly useful to leave long, even uncomfortable, pauses Silences are also important to ‘listen’ to as they often express the real between questions. The person interviewed may fill the space with feelings of the speaker. further information that is deeper and more revealing than they would ‘Listening to the feet’ - the will level - to intentions, energy, direction, otherwise have shared. Good questions can help people discover for motivation, the will. If the will does not shift, nothing will and so our themselves the underlying issue. ability to read a person’s or group’s will is a prime enabler of our ability to work effectively, in a real way. To sense the real intentions of another Some of the questions I often use to understand an organisation include: person, what they want, why they are telling you this or that, can be one of the hardest aspects of the art of listening. PROBING QUESTIONS Adapted from CDRA’s The Barefoot Guide for social change Why does this organisation exist? Looking back at the last three years in Where does this organisation’s heart lie? this organisation, what are you most proud about/sorry about? What currently gives you the most joy and satisfaction from what you do? How do you learn from experience? What is working well? Who makes decisions here? In practice, how are priorities set? What are some of the challenges / frustrations you face in fulfilling your job (or are hindering you What are the areas of tension or conflict? in achieving your mission)? If your organisation did not exist, what would be lost? What do you like most/like least about working here? Who owns this place? Where is the life force? What struck you on first joining the organisation? Who loses sleep? What keeps you awake at night If a friend was to start working here, what would about your work? they need to know to do well? What would they have What would outsiders say about your organisation? to do to get fired? If you could change three things here, what would they be? 64 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 65 PARTICIPATORY EXERCISES One other participatory exercise that can be revealing about There is also a number of useful participatory exercises we can an organisation is to get people to draw their organisation. I N VO LV I N G P E O P L E We can let people use any image they liked to characterise do with a staff group that help understand an organisation. IN THE RESEARCH We can also use these with communities to assess their organisation or give a bit more direction by suggesting they draw it as a mode of transport, a music group or an I was hired by an international NGO programmes. We are all products of our history to a large animal for example. The important thing is to get people to support a project team with action degree and therefore there is considerable value in gaining using different parts of their brains to explore what their research with Village Savings and an understanding of history – the highs and lows, the turning organisation is really like. They reveal what is below the Loans Associations (VSLAs). A previous points. Some common participatory methods include: consultant had used a questionnaire waterline. On one occasion, the staff of a faith-based survey tool, which had failed to generate organisation I was working with used animals. Almost every any deeper understanding of the ways single person individually decided on either an elephant, in which gender relations affected a venomous snake or a rat. People explained how the the process and outcomes of VSLA organisation was fine until you got too close and then it programming. became dangerous. Even those who chose a rat described how rats would quietly eat away at the skin on the soles of The action research process used a series your feet at night if you were not careful… All the examples of participatory social action and analysis were saying almost the same thing. tools to encourage project staff to reflect An organisational timeline – where people A river of life – similar to the above, but here on how gender relations influence their note key dates in the organisation’s life participants in smaller groups draw their own lives and work. Because of this initial SURVEYS AND QUESTIONNAIRES along a line in the middle of a flipchart (or organisation’s history as if it were a river. They training, project staff reached a shared a series of flip charts together). Members illustrate key moments (both good and bad) Increasingly consultants are using customised online understanding of concepts of gender and of staff write the positive events above with twists and turns, rocks and obstacles, surveys, such as Survey Monkey, as part of their data gender relations. They then developed the line and negative ones below the waterfalls, rapids, new tributaries and ox-bow gathering. They are useful in generating easily quantifiable their own participatory tools for focus line. In a relatively short period, people lakes along the way. This can be an extremely data from a broad range of respondents. Surveys can cover group discussions with women and men collaboratively identify the critical moments useful way of eliciting quite sensitive comprehensively all the main issues and enable individuals VSLA members. Because project staff were to have a confidential input. Aggregated findings appear actively engaged in a process of reflective in an organisation’s history. These events information in a non-threatening way. It more ‘scientific’ and less based on individual opinion (or learning this ensured the relevance will say a lot about how the organisation allows opportunities to probe further, asking who shouts loudest). and quality of analysis. The report led still behaves today. There are many variants for example: What good things came out of to significant adjustments to the VSLA of this – we could use a washing line with the difficulties? Or what problems came out Surveys are most effective when used in conjunction with programming approach. items representing marker moments pegged of the apparently good moments? other methods. Mapping out the broad terrain helps on and then find artefacts to represent each consultants dig deeper in subsequent semi-structured Sarah Gillingham phase. interviews. They can also provide excellent material for starting group discussions on issues: for example, mirroring back the findings and discussing why some people scored something a ‘2 out of 5’ and others a ‘4’. The subsequent discussion may be more important than the numbers. If used on their own, however, surveys and questionnaires may not work so well and can even become counter- productive. Questions cannot be explained and are open to very different interpretations. They may focus on the visible and formal, thus missing out what is below the waterline. Relationship mapping – this involves Matrix ranking – involves participants Organisational assessment tools are one form of survey mapping out the key relationships in the identifying items or options and then often used in capacity building programmes with CSOs. situation. For example, I was working with assessing them against a set of criteria a large Kenyan CSO with 250,000 members. that they themselves establish. This can It was trying to undertake a number of reveal interesting differences among group organisational changes, but had got stuck in members. key areas. I asked them to map out all the relationships that needed to be working well for the change process to proceed. I then asked them in small groups to highlight the most important relationship where trust had broken down. Everyone present identified a breakdown of trust among the board. 66 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 67 ORGANISATIONAL ASSESSMENT TOOLS SENSE MAKING A number of international agencies are keen on using Once a consultant has gathered all this data (and it is normal to feel organisational assessment (OA) or quality assessment completely overwhelmed at this stage!), we need to find ways to make tools. These are useful not only to help them make funding sense of it and draw conclusions. Models and frameworks can be useful decisions (is this organisation strong enough to deliver?) but to draw out particular themes and issues. They can provide a sort of also to identify the key capacity challenges. There are literally filing system for all the information. hundreds of such tools. They tend to have a large number of questions that staff can fill in confidentially. Most tend to Just as with organisational assessment tools, there is a myriad of models look at a similar series of universal issues such as governance, of organisation, ranging from the well-known McKinsey’s 7-S Model leadership, mission, vision, staffing, structures, systems, funding. to more esoteric versions such as Morgan’s Psychic Prisons (Morgan, Many enable aggregation of scores to highlight strengths and 1996). They are simply different lenses through which to view and read weaknesses. Some plot findings on graphs or spidergrams and organisations. No model can tell the whole story – as George Box (the others give red, green and amber lights. Some provide different industrial statistician) wisely said: ‘All models are wrong, but some are scales/indicators depending on the different stage of growth useful.’ Identify some you find useful and work with those. My personal of the organisation. A few enable comparison between staff favourite is for seeing an organisation like an onion. An onion, like an responses at different levels within the organisation, which may organisation, is something living and organic that grows underground highlight important differences of perspective. and is profoundly influenced by the environment in which it grows. Such tools can be extremely useful and systematic. But if organisation assessment tools are used on their own, The onion model says that any organisation comprises a number of they may not work so well and can even become counter- interrelated elements or layers: productive. Tools in isolation can be mechanistic and lifeless. The outermost layer of the ‘onion’ represents They are limited in their ability to describe issues of changing the physical and financial resources. relationships and power. As an organisation develops and becomes more self-aware, scores may go down. Furthermore, In the next layer, we find human capital, OA tools often miss out how changing context is affecting including the staff’s knowledge and skills. the potential or otherwise for organisational change. All too The next layer has the systems and structures frequently, the tool itself becomes the focus, causing us to needed to carry out the work. lose sight of the thinking behind it or the ultimate aim of the Moving to a deeper layer, we have the organisation’s exercise. vision, aims, objectives and strategy. Finally, in the core of the onion is the organisation’s ‘soul’ – its identity, basic values, organisational culture and ‘world view’/conceptual basis. Leadership and relationships influence this core. All the layers are important and each is essential for the organisation’s existence: they are inter-related and mutually dependent. Consequently, there needs to be a coherent fit between them. If you work on one component, it will have ramifications for the rest of the organisation. The membranes between the layers of an onion are incredibly thin. Changing one element, such as monitoring and evaluation systems for example, necessarily influences all the others (such as staff skills, resources needed, organisational culture, relationships…). The onion-skin model also clearly demonstrates that the heart of the organisation is key. There is a hierarchy of capacities. If it is rotten at the core (for example with corruption), there is little point in addressing problems in outer layers (such as lack of resources). The complexity of an organisation increases as you move towards the centre of the onion. It is easier to solve the problem of a lack of financial resources than of self-serving, poor leadership or a lack of clarity over the organisation’s identity. An organisation’s vitality and creative energy come from its heart. Its life force is at its core. Onions, like people and organisations, grow from the inside out. Working with an organisation’s identity demands care and respect, as it has to do with its innermost essence – its very soul. We all know that cutting into an onion can make you cry. 68 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 69 ANALYSING WITH THE CLIENT AN APPRECIATIVE APPROACH Having reached the stage of doing our own diagnosis, if we want to Appreciative inquiry is a positive approach to What is it that you most value in yourself, your work catalyse change we may have to withhold our analysis – to enable the “Good analysis change. It assumes that, if you ask people about and your organisation? their problems, you emphasise the problem. If you organisation to diagnose itself through dialogue. Key writers contrast rarely motivates ask them about what works, they can learn how What are the core factors that give life to your organisation? a ‘dialogic’ approach with the traditional ‘diagnostic’ one (Bushe and Marshak, 2009). people in a big to replicate and develop positive behaviour. It is If you had three wishes, what would you ask for to a cooperative search for the best in people, their enhance the health and vitality of your organisation? Dialogue is important for ownership and energy. John Kotter points way. It is about organisation and the world around them. It asks Such an approach enables people to acknowledge questions such as: out that, in successful change, ‘the central activity is not formal data gathering, analysis, report writing and presentations’ (Kotter and Cohen, enabling people and appreciate each other’s abilities, thus helping Describe a high-point experience in your organisation to generate increased self-esteem and a sense 2002:8). His extensive experience of change leads him to conclude that to see and feel the – a time when you felt most alive and engaged. of togetherness. It engenders vital ingredients of ‘good analysis rarely motivates people in a big way’ (ibid:12). It is about change: hope, trust, unity, identity and ownership. enabling people to see and feel the need for change themselves. need for change To facilitate others to decide on their own priorities, I find it helps to be themselves.” Using creative techniques is often an excellent way to promote dialogue and in-depth clear in my own mind first (provided I do not manipulate them towards discussion of potentially sensitive issues. Creativity often helps us see issues and my answers). This clarity helps me know when to push and when not to. It may be about choosing the right moment to share my opinions C O L L A B O R AT I V E challenges from a different perspective. “Many, DIALOGUE IN All people can be creative: they just need the space and opportunity to discover their – confirming or perhaps adding to what they have said; or sometimes creative side. Creativity is about expression of new ideas, insights and reflections many are challenging them to go deeper and be more honest with themselves. But E VA LUAT I O N whatever conclusions they reach, these must be theirs and not mine. As part of a recent evaluation, and can take the form of drama, art, music, poetry, games, creative writing, film and photography. the bees, Collaborative diagnosis is essential to maintaining ownership of the need I asked for a ‘feedback’ meeting with the senior staff Creativity using art often involves participants generating pictures, which reflect but tell their experience of a situation, which they can then share with the group. Groups for change and creating energy for new directions. It should strengthen the all-important motive for change. Missing out key players in this and board members. The organisation was clearly stuck can create pictures together, such as generating a group mural of a situation, me about diagnosis can prove counter-productive. I remember working with one church agency some years ago. Because we failed to engage sufficiently in two key areas of its work. such as the causes of poverty in a context or the challenges of accountability in international NGOs or policy change (such as being pulled simultaneously in the ones I asked the group to map out with the church pastors during the consultation about the role of the all the different relationships different directions)... The list is endless. that are stinging.” development agency of the church, when it came to the strategy feedback that needed to be working Creativity using drama often involves creating problem-posing scenarios to provoke session with them, they sabotaged the meeting. Instead of discussing the well for progress in those two discussion and reflection on appropriate solutions and ways forward. Drama can future direction of the church’s social action, they used the session to areas. I then asked them in explore issues such as the lack of HIV policies in the workplace, poor volunteer complain that the development department had all the vehicles and all pairs to identify anonymously management and weak governance. the privileges. This quickly escalated and resulted in the bishop closing the the relationships where trust had broken down. Every Creativity using games helps participants reflect on principles of inclusion, whole organisation down. community development, use of resources, developing a common vision. Such single group identified trust issues within the board as games include the knotty problem, lowering the stick and the longest line. When the key players are present, the priority is getting them to open the major issue. As all board Creative methods enhance participation, especially in the case of learning games up and talk honestly about the situation. The facilitator needs to create a members were present, it or scenarios where participants have to draw on their experience and humour to safe environment for this to happen as well as a structure to ensure the was obvious that the next bring characters or situations alive. This helps build team spirit too. Creativity often right questions are discussed. Facilitating a shared diagnosis is not about step was to get them talking generates a sense of fun. When people begin to enjoy themselves in being creative, presenting an expert’s report; instead, it is more like holding up a mirror, privately about where trust reflecting back what people are saying, so that the organisation can see they are more likely to learn and retain the learning. had broken down, why and itself as others do. what they could do about it. PRIORITISE – THE BEES THAT ARE STINGING One key method of more ‘dialogic’ approach to change is appreciative In any diagnosis, it is easy to come up with issues at every level of the organisational inquiry. Rather than the traditional problem-focus of most consultancies, onion. After all, no organisation has perfect leadership or perfect systems. There is appreciative inquiry focuses on identifying what is already working well. always room for improvement everywhere. The secret is to discern what the priorities Instead of negative, critical diagnosis, there is what is called: ‘discovery’ or underlying issues are. Any organisation can only move one or two steps forward (what processes are working well), ‘dream’ (envisioning processes that at a time. A comprehensive diagnosis leading to 58 recommendations is likely to go would work well in the future); ‘design’ (planning workable processes nowhere. Without prioritising, analysis leads to paralysis. As one Malawian proverb for the future) and ‘destiny’ (implementation of the proposed design). says: ‘Many, many are the bees, but tell me about the ones that are stinging.’ It promotes discussion of how to establish even better ways of working. This ‘generative’ approach leads to new ways of thinking about issues and The important thing for the facilitator is to push the organisation to prioritise and not options for action. let them settle for a long and unrealistic shopping list. It may be worth asking: ‘What one thing would this organisation need to do differently to make more of an impact?’ 70 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 71 KEY LESSONS CONSULTANT To gain a meaningful understanding of how a CSO works, we need to look both broadly at the wider system within which they CHECKLIST OF QUESTIONS operate and also deeply by finding out what is really going on. CSOs operate in a specific context, culture and network of external relationships that affect how they function. We need to appreciate What other stakeholders have an influence on the organisation? these external influences if we are to assist usefully. Who needs to be involved in the process? When? How? We also need to discover what makes an organisation tick. Much of what happens is invisible, below the waterline. We need to try What is going on under the surface? What makes this organisation tick? to understand the relationships and influential power dynamics if we are to be able to catalyse change. What data gathering methods will enable us to hear the marginal voices? It helps to use a variety of methods for data gathering. If three  hat data gathering methods fit with the purpose of the consultancy and maintain W methods all yield roughly the same results, the findings are likely ownership? to be accurate. Participatory data gathering tools are especially important to encourage the CSO’s staff to own the issue and the How can I take a more appreciative approach and build on what is going well? solution. They need to feel involved and even in control of the proposed change to some extent. How do I get the client staff to diagnose and prioritise for themselves? This is why facilitating collaborative dialogue may be the most T o what extent do they really own the need for change? Have they prioritised these important step in diagnosis. A consultant may need to come to his needs or just have a long shopping list? or her own conclusions about a situation, but then withhold these in order to facilitate the CSO in self-diagnosis. We know from personal experience that self-diagnosis is more likely to catalyse genuine change than being told what to do by someone else. 72 Consulting for Change: Strengthening Civil Society 73