Insect Biotechnology & Integrated Pest Management PDF

MK-089 “Insect Biotechnology & Integrated Pest Management” Institute for Insect Biotechnology Agricultural pests Tuesdays General Information Slides are available for download at StudIP [email protected] S...

MK-089 “Insect Biotechnology & Integrated Pest Management” Institute for Insect Biotechnology Agricultural pests Tuesdays General Information Slides are available for download at StudIP [email protected] Seite 2 Yield loss of crop plants Yield loss Yield potential Actual yield Seite 3 Yield loss of crop plants Causes Abiotic factors Biotic factors Nutrients Agricultural Radiation Water Temperature Emission Weeds Pathogens pests Xenobiotics Insects Fungi Mites Bacteria Nematodes Viruses Snails Mammals Birds based on E.-C. Oerke (2013) Seite 4 Yield loss of crop plants Agricultural pests Insects Mites Insekt Mundwerkzeuge Nematodes Snails Mammals Birds Milbe Nematode Seite 5 Hemiptera Suborders: Sternorrhyncha Superfamilies: Hemiptera Aphids (Aphidoidea) Fulgoromorpha Scale insects Cicadomorpha Jumping plant lice Coleorrhyncha Aleyrodoidea Heteroptera Based on Bourgoin & Campbell (2002) Seite 6 Hemiptera: mouthparts Front view Side view Cross section Seite 7 Hemiptera Suborders: Sternorrhyncha Superfamilies: Hemiptera Aphids (Aphidoidea) Fulgoromorpha Scale insects Cicadomorpha Jumping plant lice Coleorrhyncha Aleyrodoidea Heteroptera Based on Bourgoin & Campbell (2002) Seite 8 Aphids Aphididae: Wheat aphid Schizaphis graminum Green peach aphid Myzus persicae Black bean aphid Aphis fabae Bird cherry-oat aphid Rhopalosiphum padi Seite 9 Aphids Symptoms Honeydew on the surface of leaves Exuviae on the surface of leaves Frank Korting, DLR Rheinpfalz Leaf deformation Seite 10 Aphids Symptoms: honeydew Excretion of honeydew: 5,8 % carbohydrates 0,11 % N Phloem sap: 5,8 % carbohydrates, 0,24 % N (amino acids) Börner, 2009 Seite 11 Aphids Symptoms: honeydew Honeydew is an important food source for various insects e.g. Ants (symbiosis) Bees (forest honey) Honeydew is a breeding ground for sooty mold Seite 12 Aphids Symptoms Chlorosis and necrosis Systemic chlorosis (M. euphorbiae) (Therioaphis trifolii) Longitudinal chlorosis Formation of galls (D. noxis) Seite 13 Aphids Economic loss In Europe, direct damage by aphids is responsible for mean annual losses of 700,000 t of wheat, 850,000 t of potatoes and 2,000,000 t of sugar beet (Wellings et al., 1989). In the UK direct yield losses from aphids were 8-16% in pea, 10-13% in wheat and 5% in potato (Tatchell, 1989). Seite 14 Aphids Life cycle Holocyclic reproduction: occurrence of both sexes, ♂ towards the end of the season, hibernation as overwintering eggs on the main/primary host Anholocyclic reproduction: occurrence of exules, reproduction is parthenogenetic and viviparous, hibernation as larvae and imago Seite 15 Aphids Life cycle holocyclic anholocyclic anholocyclic Gynoparae Sexupares Oviparae ♂ autumn summer host: grass summer winter Winter egg Winter host: bird cherry spring Fundatrix Exules Virgines Hallmann, 2009 Migrants Seite 16 Aphids Mouthparts / sensory perception Seite 17 Aphids Sap sucking Penetration of the phloem vessel with a stylet (Tjallingii und Hogen Esch, 1993). Seite 18 Aphids Salivation WF Tjallingii, J Exp Bot (2006) 57, 739-745 Seite 19 Aphids Salivation Sheath saliva: - fastening of the stylet - mechanical an chemical protection of the stylet - sealing of punctured cells Seite 20 Aphids Salivation WF Tjallingii, J Exp Bot (2006) 57, 739-745 Seite 21 Aphids Salivation WF Tjallingii, J Exp Bot (2006) 57, 739-745 Watery saliva: - suppression of plant defense response - preservation of the food flow Seite 22 Aphids Diet Unbalanced diet - malnutrition E Akman Gündüz and A.E Douglas Acyrtosiphion pisum on Vicia faba Proc. R. Soc. B 2009 276, 987-991 Seite 23 Aphids Aphids possess bacterial endosymbionts for „spicing up“ their food. The International Aphid Genomics Consortium (2010) Genome Sequence of the Pea Aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. PLoS Biol 8(2): e1000313. doi:10.1371/ journal.pbio.1000313 Seite 24 Aphids Aphids possess bacterial endosymbionts for ”spicing up“ their food. The International Aphid Genomics Consortium (2010) Genome Sequence of the Pea Aphid Acyrthosiphon pisum. PLoS Biol 8(2): e1000313. doi:10.1371/ journal.pbio.1000313 Seite 25 Aphids Common endosymbionts and their function Endosymbiont Function Additional info Buchnera aphidicola Production of essential Proteobacteria, gut-located amino acids; adaptation to in bacteriocytes different host plants Regiella insecticola Increasing host-plant Proteobacteria, in range; resistance to fungi, hemocoel and gut-located resistance to parasitoids in bacteriocytes Rikettsia-like increases acceptance to Proteobacteria, area of resistant Mi-1,2 plants; location not known reduces fecundity Serratia symbiotica increases heat resistance; Proteobacteria, area of resistance to parasitoids location not known Hamiltonella defensa resistance to parasitoids Proteobacteria, area of location not known Proteobacteria are a major phylum of Gram-negative bacteria. Seite 26  Seite 27 B Martin et al., J Gen Virol (1997) 78, 2701-2705 Aphids as vectors of plant viruses Aphids Aphids 2 types of virus transmission Non-persistent persistent The majority of the approx. 290 viruses that are transmitted by aphids is non-persistent. Seite 28 Aphids 2 types of virus transmission Non-persistent persistent Virus acquisition quick (sec-min) Slow (min-h) Virus adsorption Tip of the stylet Gut, hemolymph, salivary glands Period of latency - Long (min-h) Retention time Short (min) Long (d-w) Casting of the skin No retention retention Localization of the virus Epidermis / parenchyma Phloem / xylem in the plant Seite 29 Aphids Types of virus transmission Seite 30 Aphids Types of virus transmission Seite 31 Aphids Control Treatment with pesticides (Imidacloprid, Dimethoat) results in resistance. NeemAzal (Trifolio M) has a systemic effect and can be used as biological plant protectant. Predators, parasitoids, entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana) Biotechnological weapons Seite 32 Aphids Biotechnological weapons Development of genetically modified plants, that are resistant to aphids: Protease inhibitors (PI) RNA interference Antimicrobial peptides (AMP) Repellent (e.g. E-β-Farnesen) Will et al. 2013 Seite 33 Whiteflies Aleyrodoidea Seite 34 Whiteflies Life cycle: allometaboly 3rd larval stage 4th larval stage (puparium) Seite 35 Whiteflies Reproduction of greenhouse whiteflies on tomatoes. days number Seite 36 Whiteflies Control Treatment with pesticides results in resistance Neonicotinoids: effective, but toxic for beneficial organisms and humans Biological pest control predators (ladybugs and minute pirate bugs) parasitoids (wasps) microbial agents such as entomopathogenic fungi (e.g. Beauveria bassiana) RNAi Seite 37 Whiteflies Control: combination of entomopathogenic fungi and RNAi Isaria fumosorosea: common fungal pathogen of Bemisia tabaci (whitefly) TLR7: toll like receptor 7, part of the insect’s immune system Hu et al. 2016 Seite 38 Auchenorrhyncha Taxonomy Suborders: Sternorrhyncha Hemiptera e.g. Fulgoromorpha Delphacidae Cixiidae Cicadomorpha Cicadellidae Aphrophoridae Coleorrhyncha Heteroptera Seite 39 Auchenorrhyncha Development Egg deposition on leaves or in the soil. 1 mm Hemimetabolous development of Cicadellidae with 5 larval stages (WALTER 1975) Seite 40 Auchenorrhyncha Mouthparts Cross section of the third segment of a cicada beak. Redrawn from Comstock (1920). En face view of the head of an adult cicada, Tibicen. Invertebrate anatomy online, Richard Fox, Lander University Seite 41 Auchenorrhyncha Diet Auchenorrhyncha Food resource Fulgoromorpha Cicadomorpha total Number of Number of Number of % % % species species species Phloem 141 98,6 293 61,6 434 70,1 Xylem 0 0,0 26 5,5 26 4,2 Mesophyll 0 0,0 157 33,0 157 25,4 Mycelium (2) 1,4 0 0,0 (2) 0,3 (fungi) Plant organs sucked by Auchenorrhyncha (n. NICKEL 2003: 344, verändert) Seite 42 Auchenorrhyncha Penetration mechanism Stylet penetration by Homalodisca coagulata (Cicadomorpha) RA Leopold et al., (2003) Arthropode Struct & Devel 32, 189-199 Seite 43 Auchenorrhyncha Damage 1. Deprivation of water and nutrients from the vascular bundle of plants 2. Necrosis at the penetration site 3. Toxic saliva (hopper burn) 4. Secondary Infections with fungi (honeydew) 5. Virus transmission (e.g. wheat dwarf virus) 6. Transmission of phytoplasma Phytoplasma Seite 44 Phytoplasma „History“ of phytoplasma 1967: Identification of small bacteria in the phloem of infected plants (Doi et al.) „MLOs = mycoplasma like organisms“ due to their morphological and structural similarity with mycoplasma 1994: Creation of an own genus (Candidatus „Phytoplasma“) 2004: Publication of the first genome sequence of a phytoplasma Status quo 2022: 49 species identified by sequencing of 16s rRNA-genes (Bertaccini et al.) Seite 45 Phytoplasma Bertaccini et al. (2009) http://www.ualberta.ca/~mingchen/pics/m-tphyto.jpg Seite 46 Phytoplasma Characteristics 1. Obligatory inhabitants of the phloem 2. Three membranes, no cell wall 3. Diameter < 1µm. 4. Transmission between plants via insect vectors – in rare cases transmission through dodder (Cuscuta, parasitic plant) Vectors for Flavescence dorée: Alberto Bressan, Dissertation, 2005 Seite 47 Phytoplasma Transmission Obligate parasites with a two-host-cycle: Phloem of host plants Host insects: Leafhopper Cixiidae Delphacidae Derbidae Psyllidae Period of latency: Phytoplasma colonialize the salivary glands of the insects and reproduce in the saliva Christensen et al., 2005 Seite 48 Phytoplasma Symptoms: phyllody purple coneflower wild carrot china aster Seite 49 Phytoplasma Symptoms: witches‘ broom Bertaccini et al. (2009) Seite 50 Phytoplasma Symptoms: leaf yellowing Bertaccini et al. (2009) Josef Klement, 2009 Seite 51 Seite 52 Christensen et al., 2005 Phytoplasma Reduction of metabolic pathways Christensen et al., 2005 → Import from the host Seite 53 Phytoplasma Interactions with the host Phytoplasma change the look and the behavior of their host plant with the help of effector proteins (SAP11, SAP05, SAP30) in order to attract insects … → Induction of the production of young/green leaves → production of attractants → downregulation of the plant defense response Seite 54 Coleoptera The life cycle of the japanese beetle Seite 55 Coleoptera Some important coleopteran pest insects (Hallmann, 2009) Seite 56 Coleoptera Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) High reproduction rate (800-1200 eggs per beetle) and quick development time (approx. 9 weeks egg → adult beetle) Main agricultural pest of potatoes Resistant to most of the prevalent pesticides (e.g. resistance to DDT since 1952) Seite 57 Coleoptera Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) - symptoms Damage by feeding beetles and larvae: First: margin feeding, hole feeding later: skeletonization Especially during the blooming period, the feeding damage results in huge yield loss. Each larvae consumes approx. 38 cm² leaf tissue! Seite 58 Coleoptera Colorado potato beetle (Leptinotarsa decemlineata) - control Collection… …is still an effective strategy. Bio-Collector Further control measures: insecticides (conventional), Neem + B.t.-toxin (organic farming) Seite 59 Lepidoptera Butterflies Moths Metamorphose der Schmetterlinge am Beispiel der Großen Wachsmotte Holometabolous development of Galleria mellonella (Galleria mellonella) Seite 60 Lepidoptera Feeding damage External damage: hole feeding and skeletonization of leaves e.g. Winter moth, lackey moth Internal damage: boring and tunnelling damage inside of stalks, fruits and leaves e.g.. European corn borer, codling moth Seite 61 Lepidoptera Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) Agricultural pest in fruit-growing (apple (!), pear, peach, plum, etc.). Reproduction rate of 20-80 eggs per female, development time of 2 months egg → adult. Seite 62 Lepidoptera Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) - symptoms Damage due to the larval infestation starting in May / June. Caterpillar starts feeding from the surface of the fruit to the core. Seite 63 Lepidoptera Codling moth (Cydia pomonella) – control Pick up all fallen fruits from the ground Coat the trunk with corrugated paper: Larvae prefer this as „hiding place“ for pupation and can be removed Large-scale use of sex pheromones bemuses males and precludes mating Trunk maintenance measures to reduce hibernation sites Monitoring with pheromone traps Insecticides (chemical, biological) Support beneficial organisms (earwigs, parasitic wasps) Species-specific baculoviruses (Cydia pomonella granulosis virus CpGV) Seite 64 Lepidoptera Species-specific baculoviruses (Cydia pomonella granulosis virus CpGV) budded virions occlusion derived virions occlusion bodies Seite 65 Spider mites Systematics Phylum: Arthropoda Class: Arachnida Subclass : Acari Family: Tetranychidae (Spider mites) – more than 1000 species …other families are gall mites, white mites or stored food mites Seite 66 Spider mites Anatomy a Habitus of a spider mite b Mouthparts of a predatory mite c Mouthparts of a spider mite Sejugal furrow Chelicerae Pedipalps Bristles 1st pair of legs Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 8. Auflage, Springer-Verlag Seite 67 Spider mites Life cycle European red mite (Panonychus ulmi). 1: hatching of larvae 2: ecdysis → nymph 3: ecdysis → adult mite 4: oviposition of summer eggs, up to 25 per female 5: successive generations during vegetation period cause serious damage 6: oviposition of winter eggs 7: hibernation Seite 68 Pflanzenkrankheiten und Pflanzenschutz, 8. Auflage, Springer-Verlag Spider mites Symptoms 1: white dots on the bottom site of the leaves (suction point) 2: cobwebs 3: withering 4: necrosis 5: discoloration Seite 69 Nematodes Facts Up to now 30.000 known species outnumber other animals in both individual and species counts (80% of all living animals are nematodes) Soil: up to 20 Mio. nematodes/m3 Size: 150 μm to 8,4 m (Placentonema gigantissimum in the placenta of sperm whales) bacteriophagous, mycophagous, phycophagous, phytophagous, predatory, parasitic species Strictly determined development with eutely 5000 phytophagous species 20 species cause economic losses 10 % yield loss 100 billion Eur damage Agricultural Research Service (ARS) Seite 70 Nematodes Anatomy of phytophagous nematodes a Habitus of a female nematode b Stylet c Rear end of a male nematode Börner (2009) Seite 71 Nematodes Classification of phytophagous nematodes Migratory (free-living) root nematodes Endoparasites Ectoparasites Sedentary root nematodes Cyst-forming nematodes Root-knot (gall-forming) nematodes Nematodes of surface plant organs Stalk nematodes Leaf nematodes Flower nematodes Seite 72 Nematodes Root nematodes 1+2 migratory ectoparasites 3 migratory endoparasites 4 cyst-forming nematodes 5 root-knot nematodes Börner (2009) Seite 73 Nematodes Symptoms and damage Growth inhibition, stunting (disruption of nutrients transport) Chlorosis Yellowing of leaves, leaf drop Wilting through disruption of water transport Necrosis Tissue damage and rot Root knots / cysts Curling and Twisting of Leaves and Stems Transmission of pathogens Increased susceptibility for secondary infections Roots of winter rye left: migratory root nematodes reduced the root system right: intact root system Seite 74 Nematodes Control Biological control Prophylaxis Heating Pesticides Crop rotation Weed control Resistant cultivars Natural nematicidal plants Tolerant cultivars Trap crops Bare fallow Seite 75 Nematodes Biological Control Ahmad et al. 2021 Seite 76