Educational Leadership PDF

Topic  The Nature of Leadership 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the roles of a leader; 2. Differentiate between leadership and management; 3. Discuss the...

Topic  The Nature of Leadership 1 LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Discuss the roles of a leader; 2. Differentiate between leadership and management; 3. Discuss the traits of effective leadership; 4. Explore the importance of a principalÊs instructional leadership; 5. Explore the role of power in leadership and the leader-follower relationship; and 6. Discuss the changing perspectives on leadership.  INTRODUCTION This is the first topic out of 10 prepared for the course entitled „Educational Leadership‰ which will introduce you to the foundations of leadership and organisation in general. Whenever applicable, the educational scene will be focused on and used as an illustration. The theories and concepts will enable learners for the Master of Education to understand the dynamics of education which influence the development of a nation. The leader of any organisation plays a very important role in determining its well-being. If the leader is effective, then the vision and the objectives of the organisation will be achieved and the organisation progresses further. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 2  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP Many a time, the ineffectiveness of a school is directly related to the inefficiency of the principal or headmaster. He might have been appointed as the leader just because of seniority but the measure of efficiency was never utilised for the appointment. The leader might have not gone through the process of experience and formally learnt the skills and knowledge of becoming a leader in our schools. Therefore, this course could be of help to aspiring principals, to know the theories behind the activities of leading as well as the skills needed to be an effective leader. 1.1 INTERPRETATION OF LEADERSHIP In simple terms, a leader is a person who leads a group of people to achieve certain objectives which might have been agreed on by the followers but set by the leader or as in a democratic organisation. They might have been derived through discussions and deliberations by all members including the leader. A leader plays the major role in ensuring that the group objectives are finally realised. In every group even though no leader is appointed, a leader would appear among them naturally. In a battle, if the leader is killed, the second person in command will automatically take over the leadership, but if all leaders of the platoon were to die, the person who provides some ideas and suggestions for their survival and well-being usually will be accepted by the platoon as their natural leader. This person, who assumes leadership indirectly not by choice but more so for the sake of his well- being as well his friendsÊ survival, will rise above others in the group. The real meaning of leadership can be understood partly by observing the behaviour of a person who is perceived as a leader. A person could be termed as a leader if he inspires, influences and motivates people to achieve certain goals and makes constructive changes in his organisation. In the case of Tun Mahathir Mohammad, the current Prime Minister of Malaysia, one could easily come to a conclusion that he is the leader of Malaysians. During his first tenure as Prime Minister, he not only inspired the people to achieve higher goals in everything they did but also made paradigm shifts in the policies of socioeconomic development projects. These characteristics were also observed in our fifth Prime Minister, Tun DatoÊ Sri Haji Abdullah Ahmad Badawi. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  3 The other definition of leadership by some quarters included the criteria of making a difference. A person will only be esteemed as a leader if what he exercises makes a difference and this difference can facilitate positive changes. If an organisation is in shambles when a person takes over the leadership of the organisation but after a reasonable period of time he manages to turn the organisation around where it becomes sound financially and positive vibes are present everywhere in the organisation, then we can come to the conclusion that the person who caused the positive changes was a leader. Other interpretations of leadership lead to almost the same conclusion such as a person is a leader if he has the ability to inspire and stimulate others. According to W. Chan Kim and Maubourgne (1992), „Leadership is the ability to inspire confidence and support among people who are needed to achieve organisational goals.‰ We find that this opinion is similar to the other explanations regarding leadership as explained earlier. As a summary, we could say that leadership has been defined in many different ways. Du Brin (2001) cited that there were about 35,000 research articles, magazine articles and books that have been written about leadership. Some of the definitions given by him are as follows: (a) Interpersonal influence, directed through communication toward goal attainment. (b) The influential increment over and above mechanical compliance with directions and orders. (c) An act that causes others to act or respond in a shared direction. (d) The art of influencing people by persuasion or example to follow a line of action. (e) The principal dynamic force that motivates and coordinates the organisation in the accomplishment of its objectives (Bass, 1990). (f) A willingness to take the blame (as defined by legendary football quarterback Joe Montana) (Zaslow, 1998). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 4  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP We can sense that leadership is associated with „interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to take the blame‰. These words and phrases distinguish a leader from others. If a person in any grouping has that quality and practices the role of a leader, he would be the natural leader of the group. In most successful organisations, the person appointed as a leader would have to build his personality by incorporating those traits as a part of his personality. Usually, a leader is seldom born but made. Anyone can be a leader if he desires to be one and may adopt all the characteristics of a good leader as a part of his personality. After reading the meaning of leadership in its various shades, we should move deeper into the realm of leadership roles. The roles undertaken by a leader are many faceted and if we look into them, it seems that every one of us has undertaken a few of the roles if not all of them. Let us proceed. 1.2 LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT Are leadership and management the same? Both leadership and management are about working with people and involve influence. Leadership is about effective goal accomplishment and so is management. The question of whether leadership is different from or similar to management is an ongoing debate in leadership literature. The distinction between leadership and management is critical because it will enable us to develop our thinking about other concepts such as leading change in organisations and can lead to a deeper understanding of leadership theories such as transformational and transactional leadership. Although leading and managing are conceived as different processes (Rost, 1991) with Zaleznik (1977) adopting a narrower view that leaders and managers are distinctly different types of people, there are writers (Bass, 1985; Northouse, 2013; Yukl, 2002) who argue that the functions of management are consistent with the definition of leadership set forth in subtopic 1.1. Table 1.1 shows that the functions of management and leadership are different in scope but Kotter (1998) argued that both management and leadership are essential if an organisation is to succeed. For example, an organisation which is strong in management but has no leadership would have an outcome that is stifling and bureaucratic. On the other hand, with strong leadership but weak management, the outcome would be meaningless and lack direction. To be effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management and leadership. Both are two sides of the same coin (Schein, 1997). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  5 Table 1.1: Functions of Management and Leadership Management Leadership Emphasis on Order and Consistency Emphasis on Change and Movement Planning and Budgeting: Establishing Direction:  Establishing agendas  Creating a vision  Setting timetables  Clarifying big picture  Allocating resources  Setting strategies Organising and Staffing: Aligning People:  Providing structure  Communicating goals  Making job placements  Seeking commitments  Establishing rules and procedures  Building teams and coalitions Controlling and Problem Solving: Motivating and Inspiring:  Developing incentives  Inspiring and energising  Generating creative solutions  Empowering subordinates  Taking corrective action  Satisfying unmet needs Source: Northouse (2013) SELF-CHECK 1.1 What do you understand by leadership? Explain. ACTIVITY 1.1 1. Explain what you understand by the following qualities of a leader and a manager: interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination, and willingness to take the blame. 2. In a crisis, who do you think will become a natural „leader‰ a manager or a leader? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 6  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.3 LEADERSHIP ROLES A leader in any organisation plays a very important role to ensure its well-being. To understand leadership, we should examine the various roles undertaken by a leader. Although leadership is not a panacea for all problems found in an organisation, it can play important roles to alleviate some if not the majority of them and lead the organisation towards achieving its target. DuBurin (2001) claimed that researchers in this subject identified nine roles that are played by leaders as shown in Figure 1.1. These roles are very important for the survival of a leader in an organisation. If he does not take the lead in those roles, others would have to take them and in the process it would erode the leadership base and others would usurp them and the leader would be side-lined and discarded. Figure 1.1: Nine roles played by leaders We will now discuss the nine roles one by one. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  7 1.3.1 Figurehead The term here does not downgrade the role of a leader. Usually, before a person is promoted into the leadership role, he would have gone through the mill. He would have the experience of taking responsibilities of doing the difficult tasks when still climbing the ladder of the organisation. When a person is appointed as the Chief Executive Officer (CEO), he has already mastered the nitty-gritty of the organisation and he does not have to do the job. He attends ceremonies just like the Governor or the King in a constitutional monarchy. 1.3.2 Spokesperson Another important role of leadership is to be the spokesperson of the organisation. One of the criteria of promotion is oneÊs thorough knowledge of the organisation. Therefore, it is most appropriate for the leader to be the representative of the organisation. 1.3.3 Negotiator A leader is judged by his ability to negotiate difficult bargaining situations especially with trade unions or for bargaining the best deal from vendors or business partners. 1.3.4 Coach An effective leader would help subordinates by coaching them to be more effective. Some of the coaching activities that leaders implement are related to tips on human relations procedures and skills as well as communication skills. 1.3.5 Team Builder A very important aspect of leadership is building an effective team where team members cooperate effectively with each other. The members feel that they all belong to the organisation and have high group morale. They are also encouraged to talk about their accomplishments, problems and concerns and they would try to help and motivate each other in the process of reaching greater heights of achievements. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 8  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.3.6 Team Player A leader should also be a team player who has to exhibit appropriate behaviours such as abiding by the team decision. 1.3.7 Technical Problem Solver Technical problem solving is usually the responsibility of middle managers and supervisors. They are usually prepared for higher positions in the organisation, and among their duties is to help team members to solve their technical problems. 1.3.8 Entrepreneur An important aspect of leadership, especially in a private organisation, is the role of an entrepreneur by contributing innovative ideas on how to attract more students to enrol into courses offered by the institute. 1.3.9 Strategic Planner The top management team is always involved in strategic planning after getting valuable information and data from various sources. Strategic planning is vital in ensuring a healthy environment with growth projections that are synonymous with market demands of the future. After scrutinising all the mentioned roles, we may observe that a leader has to have not only theoretical knowledge, but also have the right attitudes and the correct skills. The leader has to be a good actor at first and in the process, absorb all the traits that are required to be a successful role player in all the nine roles. A leader who can adapt himself to the roles that are demanded out of him will be able to bring together his staff to support him and the organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  9 SELF-CHECK 1.2 What is the difference between a „team builder‰ and a „team player‰? ACTIVITY 1.2 1. Why is the role of an entrepreneur important? 2. Select four of the leadership roles that you would consider to be the most important and give reasons why. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.4 TRAITS OF EFFECTIVE LEADERSHIP All the roles mentioned previously that have to be played by a leader could be measured by various means such as by looking at the result; whether there is harmony between the staff in the organisation, and whether it makes a profit. These variables can be measured through questionnaires or by participant observation. The effectiveness of oneÊs leadership could also be observed through the traits of the leader himself. McEwan (2003) in his book 10 Traits of Highly Effective Principals ă From Good to Great Performance described that effective principals who are school leaders, could be observed through the 10 traits. The accounts by these effective leaders could inspire educational leaders to achieve higher levels of efficiency. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 10  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP Figure 1.2: Ten Important indicators of effective leadership Figure 1.2 show us 10 traits as important indications of effective leadership. All these traits should be present in an individual leader and they should be part of the personality of the individual. In order to have a deeper understanding of these traits, we will probe into each one of them. Benchmarks were set for each trait and a leader could only be considered as effective if the benchmarks standards are met. McEwanÊs (2003) strict adherence to her benchmarks ensured that if the leaders under scrutiny were to fulfil each one of the benchmarks, their standing as leaders would be solid and there would be few disagreements about their status. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  11 1.4.1 The Communicator Communication skills are very important in any leadership function. A leader has to communicate his ideas and instructions to his subordinates as well as to others. If the message is not vividly communicated, misunderstandings could arise and as the result of this inability, he would be rendered as an ineffective leader. McEwan gave the following characteristics which are used as benchmarks for this trait. As a communicator, a leader has to: (a) Attend to the needs of the staff; (b) Listen and understand to the grouses and opinions of his subordinates; (c) Empathise with whatever difficulties encountered by the staff and provide means to ease them through cooperation; (d) Disclose himself to others; (e) Get the whole story; (f) Ask the right questions; (g) Say what he means and mean what he says. A leader should be straight forward and not beat about the bush; (h) Accept criticism; (i) Give correction; (j) Communicate creatively; (k) Disagree agreeably; (l) Pay attention to parents; (m) Connect emotionally and professionally with staff; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 12  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP (n) Communicate with students; (o) Can talk to the boss; (p) Connect in productive, helping and healing ways; (q) Care enough to send the very best; (r) Know how to sweet talk; and (s) Write, speak and teach. These characteristics of the communicator could be important reminders for each one of us since we are leaders in various capacities holding many roles at all times. An aspiring leader would benefit from knowing those important traits because he needs to immortalise those traits within his personality and mould his character accordingly. An effective leader does not necessarily have those characteristics at the optimum level because it is very rare for a person to excel in everything he does. What is needed is the awareness of the importance of all those traits and slowly indoctrinating oneself into those traits and practising the kaizen philosophy where continuous improvement is a sure way of improving oneself. ACTIVITY 1.3 1. What does it mean to „know how to sweet talk‰? 2. What is meant by „agree to disagree‰? 3. In your career you would have met and worked under various leaders. Discuss one of these leaders using the characteristics of leadership as points of reference, and give your verdict whether he belongs to the effective group of leaders or leaders that need to go through various leadership trainings and workshops. Share your answers in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  13 1.4.2 The Educator Every one of us is an educator even though we are not professional teachers. We educate our children to behave and toilet-train our pets. As a leader, this role is benchmarked against some characteristics that are deemed as the trait of an educator. As an educator, he should exhibit the following characteristics: (a) Believes that all students can learn; (b) Provides training and support for teachers; (c) Creates cognitive dissonance to ensure the development of creativity among the students; (d) Establishes, implements and achieves academic standards; (e) Focuses on instruction; (f) Models continuous learning; (g) Develops teacher leaders; (h) Pays attention to what matters most; and (i) Creates learning communities. An educational leader must be an educator in order to succeed. His interest is embedded in the creation of a conducive environment for growth for all; the students, academic and non-academic staff as well. He is unselfish in sharing his knowledge and experiences with others in the organisation to ensure the achievement of the vision of his organisation. ACTIVITY 1.4 1. What is „a learning community‰? Explain. 2. The principal who is classified as „an educator‰ has many positive traits that are useful in leading a school. What type of school do you think that he will be the most useful in? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 14  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.3 The Envisioner The following are the characteristics of the envisioner: (a) Has sixth sense and can sense future happenings; (b) Feels called to make a difference; (c) Has resolve, goals and life vision; (d) Can see the invisible; (e) Knows where they are headed; (f) Has compelling visions that enables him to use this ability to venture into unchartered territory; and (g) Can articulate his visions and then make them happen. The „envisioner‰ is an important trait for strategic planners for this ability would enable the organisation to charter future plans accurately and in the process minimise wastage in time as well as manpower. An organisation which can do this will be able to withstand changes and uncertainties in the market place as well as new challenges in the future. SELF-CHECK 1.3 List the characteristics of an „envisioner‰. ACTIVITY 1.5 How would an „envisioner‰ react to the changes in the education policy, such as the change of the medium of instruction from Malay to English in the teaching of mathematics and science from Malay to English? Discuss and share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  15 1.4.4 The Facilitator The following are the characteristics of the facilitator: (a) Bonds people into a community of leaders; (b) Taps the potential of people; (c) Says „we‰ instead of „I‰; (d) Favours people over paperwork; (e) Builds up emotional bank accounts through understanding, appreciating, and affirming of another individual; (f) Cultivates his own well-being and develops an anti-burnout mechanism by developing his self-esteem; (g) Values diversity; (h) Shares the „power pie‰; (i) Accentuates the positive aspects of his followers; (j) Promotes parental involvement in school activities; (k) Celebrates whenever successes are achieved for this will be a motivating element for the students; and (l) Spends time with students which will make the students feel that the principal has an interest in their welfare. A „facilitator‰ is a person who facilitates the smooth running of affairs among members within the organisation as well as with outsiders. He sees people in a positive light and feels that they have potentials for the betterment of the organisation that others do not see. This trait can be cultivated and made use for developing organisational well-being. It helps others to see things in a positive way and boost the possibility of cooperation and collaboration from the most unlikely people. He can make things happen. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 16  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP SELF-CHECK 1.4 1. What does „building up emotional bank accounts‰ mean? 2. In your own words, explain „the sharing of the power pie‰. ACTIVITY 1.6 1. How does a leader „bond people into a community of leaders‰? 2. If a school is having communication problems among the teachers and between the teachers and the students, what would you do if you are a „facilitator‰ principal? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.4.5 The Change Master The following are the characteristics of the change master: (a) Can handle uncertainty and ambiguity; (b) Respects resisters which show that the leader knows how to handle difficult and delicate situations in a change process; (c) Is futuristic because a leader who designs change actions are usually forward looking and has the ability to adapt his organisation earlier than the resisters; (d) Uses a situational approach; (e) Knows the power is within oneself; (f) Values the process because it is an important experience; (g) Plans for short-term victories for building up confidence; (h) Procures resources to ensure that the change process would not be hindered; (i) Trusts his team; (j) Does not only require his followers to change but he himself is willing to change because a leader leads by example; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  17 (k) Must also be a motivator; and (l) Understands the whole change process is a mark of an effective leader. He knows how to plan for change as well as manage it well to ensure cooperation from his staff. He knows that changing paradigms are difficult to begin with, and therefore he anticipates there would be resisters and knows how to deal with them. In time, the resisters will become supporters when they see the reasons and rationale for the change. SELF-CHECK 1.5 Who is a „change master‰? ACTIVITY 1.7 1. Where do you think is the best place for the „change master‰ to serve in the Malaysian school system? 2. Explain „futuristic‰ and the benefit of this characteristic. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.4.6 The Culture Builder The following are the characteristics of the culture builder: (a) Understands and appreciates the power of culture; (b) Knows what a good culture looks like, in order to plan and execute the cultural building plan of the organisation; (c) Facilitates the development of core values; (d) Communicates these values clearly to all team members; (e) Rewards and cheers those who support and enhance the culture motivating others to do the same; (f) Builds a culture that people choose; and (g) Knows the small stuff is really the big stuff, which helps the organisation to achieve its objectives faster. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 18  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP To build a culture takes time and effort. In the case of building a culture in a school it takes at least a generation of students, which is approximately five years of continuous effort. The effort must be sustained and the newly formed culture has to be nourished and propagated. When new students enter the school, they must be acculturated into the established culture of the school. The teachers and the principal are the main participants through leadership by example where students will emulate them. If a positive and nourishing culture is established, then it will be easier for it to be sustained and improved upon from generation to generation. SELF-CHECK 1.6 Describe what is meant by „understanding and appreciating the power of culture‰? ACTIVITY 1.8 What would the „culture builder‰ do if he is given the opportunity to head a newly established secondary school in the inner city where most of the students are from the lower socioeconomic background? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.4.7 The Activator The following are the characteristics of the activator: (a) Mobilises people to work towards achieving the target; (b) Is also an entrepreneurial leader; (c) Does not want to be told ă a proactive indicator of a leader; (d) Is a risk taker because by doing so he can make the organisation be in the forefront of the industry; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  19 (e) Asks for forgiveness rather than permission whenever he wants to begin a new venture; (f) Runs to daylight as used by McEwan (2003) ă meaning taking advantage of an opportunity (Waterman 1990); (g) Does not micromanage the teachers because he feels that teachers should be given the freedom to do things their own way; (h) Makes things happen; (i) „He is outrageous‰ in a positive tone which is an indicator of admiration indicating that he is a rare breed who achieved whatever targets were set for him and has beaten all odds though he might be eccentric; and (j) Is a cheerleader because he encourages and motivates. Original thinkers are usually outrageous and unconventional but they are able to see things that others cannot. This trait is an advantage because he is prepared for things to come, leaving others aghast when what he forecasted really happens. He becomes an effective leader and would change the organisation that he is heading into a better organisation when he leaves. SELF-CHECK 1.7 What is meant by „being outrageous‰ as used in 1.4.7(i)? ACTIVITY 1.9 1. What do you think will happen to the school if the principal has only the characteristics of an „activator‰? Discuss. 2. What would an „activator‰ do when he faces a crisis? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 20  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.4.8 The Producer The characteristics of the producer are as follows: (a) Believes that achievement is the bottom line; (b) Never mistakes activities for achievements because unplanned activities would not achieve anything; (c) Is data driven; (d) Pays attention to individual students; (e) Has an academically-focused mission; (f) Makes research-based decisions; and (g) Holds teachers accountable for all activities by them. A producer is driven by hard data. He will not waste his time and resources into something that he does not know will have a chance of winning. This careful trait ensures that the organisation does not spend time and effort in wasteful activities. SELF-CHECK 1.8 The producer „never mistakes activities for achievements‰. Explain. ACTIVITY 1.10 Compare and contrast the „producer‰ with the „activator‰. Are they compatible? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  21 1.4.9 The Character Builder McEwan (2003) indicated the following characteristics as an indicator of a leader who builds the character of his team members. If a leader has all the characteristics, it is an excellent indicator that the school or organisation is going to achieve its vision. (a) He is human; which means that he has his weak moments however perfect he is in the eyes of his followers; (b) He is trustworthy; (c) He has integrity; (d) He is authentic which means that the leader is real and can be counted on; (e) He is respectful; (f) He is generous in giving advice and willing to coach others in the improvement process; (g) He hires staff members with character. This means that the staff members have strong personalities and characteristics which would help him to achieve the organisational objectives; (h) He is consistent in his words and actions; (i) He leads by example; and (j) He seeks to develop the character of students. A leader with character is trusted by the organisation as well as his subordinates. His personality is pleasant and his followers will find it easy to emulate him to get the respect from him as well as from people who have dealings with the organisation. Since he leads by example, the students who are in the formative stage of development will have a good example in him. SELF-CHECK 1.9 1. In your opinion what are the five most important characteristics of „the character builder‰? Why? 2. Elaborate on the statement, „A leader hires staff members with character‰. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 22  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP ACTIVITY 1.11 As a teacher in a school that is headed by a principal who is a „character builder‰, how would you help in making the school an „effective school‰? Share your answer with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.4.10 The Contributor The contributor plays a vital role because he is very concerned with his customersÊ needs, and he strives to fulfil them. He is very thorough in everything he does to ensure that whatever changes he wants to implement; they must go through a rigid inspection and introspection first. Some of his characteristics are as follows: (a) Leads by serving others; (b) Is self-aware and reflective; (c) Is a good steward for others to trust and follow; and (d) Has a strong will. The contributor pays attention to details and this trait ensures that nothing is missing or misplaced. Costly mistakes can be avoided and his superiors can trust this leader to deliver the goods on time and miscommunication will be minimised because he double checks when there is any slightest doubt. All the mentioned characteristics and traits of effective leaders will, no doubt, bring about the desired results of any organisation. It seems that a combination of the earlier traits, are found in various degrees in leaders who were later studied under a different light using different criteria. The changing perspectives on leadership studies bring about a new light of understanding of the leadership types. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  23 ACTIVITY 1.12 After reading the roles and characteristics of an effective leader, you would have a good idea of what qualities you should have if you were to be an effective leader of a school and perhaps later on, an effective education leader in any school system. To test whether you have really grasped the content of the above materials you may answer the following questions: (a) In order to play the leadership roles effectively, a leader should have acquired the necessary qualities of the nine leadership roles stated in this topic. How would an aspiring leader acquire those qualities? Discuss. (b) Out of the nine roles discussed in this topic, name five of the more important roles that a principal should have mastered in order to be an effective leader. Discuss the rational for choosing them. (c) In our education system, when do you think a leader plays the role of: (i) A strategic planner? (ii) An entrepreneur? (iii) A figurehead? (d) Developing positive traits takes time. Do you think leaders can be trained to acquire the traits of effective leadership through training courses and workshops? Discuss. (e) Out of the ten traits of effective leadership, in your opinion, name three of the most important ones. Give reasons for choosing them. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 24  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.5 LEADERSHIP AND POWER The element of power appears conspicuous in leadership as power is fundamentally inherent in the leadership process. The use of power, at its most basic level, is defined by Dahl (1957) as somebody influencing another person to do something they would otherwise not do. Most leadership definitions make references to influencing followers, where some source of power is arguably needed to be able to influence others. Yet, power has never been strongly featured in the study of leadership due to its negative connotations of abusive and bad leadership. The study of leadership in the absence of in-depth considerations of power and the power asymmetric in leadership studies and practices has led to the false assumption of leadership as inherently good and positive (Collinson, 2011; Gordon, 2011). Table 1.2 shows three sources of power and their links to leadership. Table 1.2: Influence, Persuasion and Authority Sources of Description Link to Leadership Power Influence Process of producing an effect on An essential activity of a leader and somebodyÊs behaviour, attitude, an active use of power to get vales, etc. somebody or a group to achieve a set goal. Persuasion Urging with somebody A particular way a leader can convincingly to do something or influence others, can be seen as a believe something. form of political behaviour or tactic. Authority The right (legal or positional) to Come with formal positions of determine control, assign tasks and leadership and management within responsibilities, solve conflicts, set an organisational hierarchy. rules and procedures, reward and punish. Source: Schedlitzki & Edwards (2014) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  25 1.5.1 Power – A Focus on Individuals Power is described as the ability of an individual or group to influence another individual or group. This is linked to different mechanisms of influencing, such as coercive, remunerative and normative. These mechanisms are likely to produce different reactions from those who are influenced, such as commitment, compliance or resistance (Etzioni, 1988). Most leadership theories (Topic 2, Topic 3 and Topic 4) take this view of power and seek to give leaders advice on what types and sources of power they have and how they can use these in the light of how their followers will react to it (Yukl, 2010). This view of power is behavioural as it focuses on the individualÊs use of power and interaction with others. Such a view is concerned with observable, behavioural actions and reactions and the active use of power to resolve conflicts and make decisions. Such power gains its legitimacy through the hierarchy and rules within the organisation (Jackson & Parry, 2011). As a result, such power is usually associated with the managerÊs power over his subordinates in line with the supervisory role and the organisationÊs rules of conduct. 1.5.2 Power – Shared Leadership With recognition given to distributed leadership, the focus of power has shifted from the individual to that of equal distribution between leaders and followers (Gordon, 2011). With this dispersed leadership movement, there arises a totally different way of looking at the relationships between the leader and the followers. Collinson (2011) echoes GordonÊs (2011, p. 185) view that the power relations between the leader and the follower are „likely to be interdependent and asymmetrical, ambiguous, frequently shifting, potentially contradictory and often contested‰. This recognises that despite the asymmetrical power relationship, followers are not entirely powerless (Schedlitzki & Edwards, 2014). Shared leadership, or often known as distributed leadership, is practised when subordinates are given the opportunities to make decisions that affect them in the organisation. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 26  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP 1.6 CHANGING PERSPECTIVES ON LEADERSHIP So far we have been looking at leadership from the traits and role perspectives which are traditional in nature. Most of this theory development and research which follows a traditional model occurred before 1980s and a lot of research had been generated, and many theories were developed such as the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) studies which started at Ohio State University in the 1940s. It was originally developed and refined by John K. Hemphill and Alvin Coons in 1950, and in 1952 it was later refined by Andrew Halpin and B. J. Winter (Hoy & Miskel 2001). There were four major findings that emerged from the Ohio State University LBDQ studies (Halpin, 1966). Halpin summarised their findings in the following words: (a) Initiating structure and consideration are fundamental dimensions of leader behaviour. (b) Effective leader behaviour tends most often to be associated with frequent behaviours on both dimensions. (c) Superiors and subordinates tend to evaluate the contributions of the leader behaviour dimensions oppositely in assessing effectiveness. Superiors tend to emphasise initiating structure; subordinates are more concerned with consideration. (d) Only a slight relationship exists between how leaders say they should behave and how subordinates describe that they do behave. From the four major findings, we can observe that the common ground between the leaders and their subordinates are limited and they have very little in common to share. Leaders seemed to emphasise initiating the structure while the subordinates are more concerned with consideration, and if both sides go different ways then the relationship stops to function and the organisation breaks down. In order for the organisation to run smoothly to achieve its objectives, the common ground for both sides to interact actively must be broad enough so that both sides would perceive that their interests were taken care of. Only then the leadership becomes effective. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  27 This pattern of leadership studies slowly began to change and, in the 1990s, a new paradigm in leadership studies emerged. It was termed as „The New Leadership‰. In the early 1990s, charismatic and transformational leadership theories provoked a high level of interest among scholars and practitioners, and by the end of the decade, dozens of research studies were conducted (Conger, 1999). This new approach towards leadership was different from the traditional approach (Hoy & Miskel, 2001). The following discussions on the new approach towards leadership will provide a better picture and understanding of their positions. 1.6.1 Charismatic Leadership Max Weber (1947) first conceptualised charisma as a mode of influence based on the followersÊ perceptions that the leader displayed exceptional qualities. Whenever a leader displays the ability to solve a problem through an envisioning of strategic plans and deliberations on how to go about doing it, especially in a crisis, he would have a following. If his solutions to the problem bring about the desired results, then his followers would show strong and intense loyalty to the leader. In history, we have seen leaders such as Hitler of Germany, Soekarno of Indonesia and Mathma Ghandi of India as examples of charismatic leaders. Their followers showed intense loyalty towards them and would follow the instructions of these leaders. From the examples given, we know that charisma does not differentiate between good and evil (House & Howell, 1992) and these charismatic leaders emerged during crisis. In the case of Hitler, there is very little disagreement that he was a charismatic leader with negative and evil connotations. House (1977) defined charismatic leadership as distinguishable from other leadership by its characteristics. Charismatic leaders are characterised by dominance, self-confidence, need to influence and strong conviction in the moral correctness of their beliefs. These charismatic leaders would be able to bring about positive changes in society to achieve their visions successfully, if their policies and visions are based on a sound philosophy and principles. On the other hand, if these charismatic leaders based their philosophy on false notions and destructive philosophies, then the societies they lead would create anarchy as what happened to Hitler of Germany during the Second World War and Radovan Milosevic of Serbia after the break-up of Yugoslavia in 1990s. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 28  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP House and Howell (1992) refined the personality traits of charismatic leadership which were first constructed by House (1977). The refined personality traits include the following: (a) Achievement-oriented; (b) Creatively- and innovatively-oriented; (c) Very energetic and has a high level of involvement; (d) Self-confident; (e) Has a need for social influence with concern for the moral use of power; (f) Takes high risk and has a deep work involvement; and (g) Nurturing, sensitive socially and considerate towards followers. From these personality traits, we would envision that the charismatic leaders as characterised by House and Howell (1992) are sought after leaders because those traits are necessary ingredients for successful organisations. In an educational context, we would be able to achieve better academic results, while the creative and innovative traits of the principal would lead the way for the teachers and the students to follow. Any paradigm shifts that were to be implemented would have the least resistance from the followers. The leaderÊs deep involvement and willingness to take risks would bring about intense support from the staff and the possibility of achieving the objectives are very likely. To judge whether a leader is charismatic or not depends on the followers. It is the followers who determine whether their leader is charismatic or otherwise. Conger and Kanungo (1988) explained that the attribution of charisma gradually begins to form as followers observe the leaderÊs behaviour. Charismatic leaders engage in behaviours that create a sense of leader success. The leader can sense his success and in the process, his support becomes stronger from his followers. Both Conger and Kanungo (1988) summarised that charismatic leaders show the following behaviour: (a) Has a future vision; (b) Manages impressions; (c) Makes self-sacrifices; (d) Takes personal risks; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  29 (e) Models behaviour for followers to imitate; (f) Engages in unconventional behaviour for followers to imitate; and (g) Shares power. This summary shares similar characteristics described by House and Howell (1992). Before Conger and Kanungo (1988) and House and Howell (1992), in 1977, House had hypothesised that charismatic leaders have the greatest influence on followersÊ emotions. Michael Jackson, the King of Pop could be cited as a charismatic leader in the pop music world, whereby millions of his followers and supporters all over the world were hysterical at the news of his release from all wrong doings. Shamir and Howell (1999) contended that charismatic leadership is more likely to emerge and be effective in weak situations. In the case of Indonesia during the war for independence from the Dutch, the country was unstable and weak. The country may have disintegrated into small independent states along ethnic lines but President Soekarno was able to forge a united Indonesia through his ability to persuade the people of Indonesia to remain within the Republic. His success in this area enabled him to have a large group of staunch followers all over the country who were willing to listen to his lengthy speech for hours and they emulated him in his oratory ability as well as his dressing. The people of Indonesia still have warm regards for him and remember him as instrumental for achieving independence and unity for Indonesia. The likelihood of having a charismatic leader in a developed democracy is most unlikely, because people have all the basic needs and have no threats within their society. Therefore, there is no need for a charismatic leader to sway them to achieve grand visions or to climb greater heights. They are already there! Charismatic leaders seemed to become rarer at the turn of the 21st century due to the globalised environment including third world countries. However, on a smaller scale and in a more localised manner, it does occur from time to time. What these leaders possess is not fully charisma but rather a combination of various forms of characteristics and styles. Leaders have become more „normal‰ and down-to-earth and they can easily be accessed by their followers. As such, whatever charismatic qualities they have seemed to dissipate and the real qualities become apparent to their followers. As the result of this perception change, other types of leadership were coined to describe the new changes in the leadership styles which are more suited to the new democratic process as people become more educated worldwide. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 30  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP In our school system, sometimes there exist schools that have a combination of problems due to many factors. Sometimes the problems might be caused by neglect by all sides ă the principal, teachers, parents and students as well as the department of education. Where the neglect continues for a long period of time it develops into a negative culture that can destroy the school. To rehabilitate the school takes a lot of effort and time. Probably this is the time and place when the services of a charismatic leader is needed. SELF-CHECK 1.10 What are the refined personality traits of a charismatic leader according to House and Howell (1992)? ACTIVITY 1.13 1. Some people contend that most charismatic leaders are ineffective. Do you agree with them? Discuss. 2. Where do you think a charismatic principal would serve best? Give reasons. 3. Is charismatic leadership acquired or inborn? Elaborate your answer. 4. Can an individual who aspires to be a leader develop some charismatic traits? If he can, how? Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.6.2 Transactional and Transformational Leadership There are two other leadership types that are classified as the same category but positioned at different points on the same continuum. They are classified as transactional and transformational leadership approaches. Bernard M. Bass (1985) on the basis of James MacGregor BurnÊs (1978) ideas of transactional and transformational political leaders was among the first who made an attempt to deliberate on the characteristics of transformational leadership. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  31 According to Burns (1978), transactional leaders motivate their followers by exchanging rewards for the services rendered. In an organisation, the employees and the employers do barter trading where the services and goods rendered by the employees are exchanged for the wages at the end of the month. This analogy illustrates the transaction between the leaders and the subordinates. When this transactional leadership mode is applied to schools, the leaders recognise what the followers want and the leader tries to provide them with this. In exchange for the reward, the teachers will provide their services through teaching and involvement in co-curricular activities. Kuhnert and Lewis (1987) summarised transactional leaders as giving followers things they want in exchange for things leaders want. If the expectations of the leaders and the followers are congruent with each other, then the organisation would be in harmony and the objectives set would be met but there is a limit to this type of transaction. In a dynamic organisation where new things need to be developed and paradigm shifts need to be made to face the challenges in the market place, a different type of leadership is needed. In contrast to transactional leaders, transformational leadership goes beyond exchanges and inducements for desired performance and products or services (Bennis & Nanus, 1985). Transformational leaders would use other means of motivating their followers to be self-motivated and empowering themselves to produce unexpected performance beyond what they themselves could envisage. According to Yukl (1998) transformational leaders build commitment into the organisationÊs objectives and empower followers to achieve those objectives. He cited that transformational leaders are expected to: (a) Define the need for change; (b) Create new visions and muster commitment to the visions; (c) Concentrate on long-term goals; (d) Inspire followers to transcend their own interests to pursue higher order goals; (e) Change their organisation to accommodate their vision rather than work within the existing one; and (f) Mentor followers to take greater responsibility for their own development and that of others. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 32  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP These six actions that are taken up by transformational leaders are actually qualities of effective leaders, which have been deliberated upon earlier, who are open to paradigm shifts and innovations. Willingness to adopt new ways of doing „other things‰ as well adopting innovations in doing the „traditional things‰ is a sign of a transformational leadership. Transformational leaders feel that there is a need for change in the organisation and the needed change is defined in specific and measurable terms to ensure that the process of ongoing evaluation could be implemented to measure the success of the change process. Transformational leaders also mentor their followers to empower themselves by taking greater responsibility for their own development and others in the organisation. This mentoring process enables the subordinates to be more effective through the process of learning new knowledge, skills and instilling the right attitudes before they can really be empowered by the leaders. Bass (1998) and Avolio (1999) contend that transactional leadership forms the basis of a sustainable leadership system. In any organisation the qualities of a transactional leader enable the organisation to face dynamic challenges and help them not to succumb to the onslaughts of globalisation. Instead, the process of globalisation would transform the organisation into a desired vehicle to spread its strategic plans and visions in difficult-to-access places. In the process of leadership, the practise of transactional leadership is the beginning of a higher form of leadership namely transformational leadership which is at the higher end of the same continuum. When an organisation has become more effective through transactional leadership, it is a sign that the organisation could be positively transformed further through the implementation of transformational leadership. The source of transformational leadership is in the personal values and beliefs of the leaders. These values and beliefs lead to a strong desire to transform the organisation into a new entity and the strong beliefs and values would sustain the momentum needed to achieve the strategic objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  33 Bass (1998) views that transformational leaders go beyond transactional leaders by employing the four Is as shown in Figure 1.3. Figure 1.3: Four Is of transformational leaders When transactional leaders move further within the same continuum to become transactional leaders they have to go some steps further. The influence that they want to have on their followers should be strong enough so that the followers would idealise it and willingly follow the footsteps taken by these transformational leaders. The motivation that they devise is of a type that inspires them intellectually and the experience that the followers have is individualised. The experience would be more meaningful through the individualisation process. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 34  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP In the context of the school, these transformational leaders should inspire the teachers to believe in themselves through the process of strategic planning as well as implementing the visions and sharing equally the successes of the change strategy that they have achieved. The teachers would feel that they belong to the successes as intensely as the leaders themselves. The leaders should have pride in their followers and feel that they belong to the same community as the followers. As society progresses, the style of leadership approaches also moves with the changes in society. At the time when it was effective to use transactional leadership, it was widely used in managing subordinates in organisations As society progressed and workers were more educated than before, the transactional leadership approach moved to a higher and more enlightened level into the transformational leadership stage. Malaysian education, for example, is actively involved in the reengineering process of the school system to prepare for 2020 when Malaysia will achieve its developed nation status. Primary school teachers and headmasters are being retrained to higher education so that by the year 2020 all of them will hold at least a bachelor degree which would make them experts in their specialisation of teaching elementary students in the primary schools. This process of change needs both transactional and transformational leadership styles to ensure an everlasting change through effective implementations of programmes to achieve the objectives of Vision 2020 in education. 1.6.3 Instructional Leadership A critical role of a school leader is that of an instructional leader, although the principal alone is not solely responsible for leadership of instruction (Hoy & Hoy, 2003). Teachers deliver classroom instruction as they have the subject expertise, but it is the principalÊs responsibility to create an environment and develop a school climate that facilitates quality instructional programmes conducive to providing the very best instructional practices. Thus, the onus falls on the principal to forge a partnership with teachers with the primary goal of the improvement of teaching and learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  35 Hallinger (1982) developed 10 job functions that reflect the areas of responsibility of the principal as an instructional leader as shown in Figure 1.4. Figure 1.4: The 10 job functions of an instructional leader Let us now discuss the 10 job functions in greater detail. (a) Frame the School Goals The principal determines the areas in which the school focuses its resources during a given year with emphasis on student achievement. All school resources are mobilised to achieve a few but well-coordinated objectives. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 36  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP (b) Communicate the School Goals Goals are effectively communicated to teachers, parents and students to be realised. The principal discusses and review these goals with teachers on a regular basis. Such communication can be through school bulletins, newsletters, school handbooks and during assemblies. (c) Supervise and Evaluate Instruction Goals of the school are being translated into practice in the classrooms. Classroom instruction is evaluated and instructional supports to teachers are provided. Classroom instruction is monitored through numerous informal classroom visits. (d) Coordinate the Curriculum Content taught in classes and the student assessments are closely aligned with school curricular objectives. (e) Monitor Student Progress Test results are analysed, interpreted and discussed in a concise form with staff at an appropriate time. (f) Protect Instructional Time Teachers are provided with blocks of uninterrupted time so that they are able to implement better classroom management and instructional skills. (g) Maintain High Visibility Interaction between the principal and students as well as teachers increases with the principalÊs visibility in the school and classroom. It also has a positive effect on student behaviour and classroom instruction. (h) Provide Incentives for Teachers Teachers are rewarded through praises, compliments, promotion opportunities and monetary gain when they deserve them. (i) Provide Professional Development The principal arranges and provides relevant opportunities for staff development, especially in improving instruction. Such programmes are closely related to the schoolÊs goals. (j) Provide Incentives for Learning The principal plays an important role in creating a school-learning climate with emphasis on academic achievement. StudentsÊ achievement should be rewarded and recognised by peers and teachers. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  37 SELF-CHECK 1.11 1. What are expected out of transformational leaders? 2. What do you understand by the phrase, „There are two other leadership types that are classified as the same category but positioned at different points on the same continuum‰? ACTIVITY 1.14 1. How would you explain why the transactional and transformational leadership approaches are on the same continuum in the school context? 2. Can all leaders acquire transformational leadership traits through training? Explain. 3. Describe how a transformational leader executes the mission and vision of a school that he leads to achieve the status of an „effective school‰. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum. 1.6.4 Moral Leadership Transformational leadership would be more potent if it was accompanied by certain values and beliefs that are used as guiding principles. The other form of leadership that are based on values and beliefs which complement and strengthen transformational leadership is termed by Sergiovanni (1991) as moral leadership. The proponents of moral leadership believe that leadership practice should not only be considered legitimate if it is only based by secular authority, science and deductive reasoning and logic which at present dominate management thinking. That criterion is not wholesome due to other elements that guide human actions and thinking. Therefore, it should also include sense experience, intuition, sacred authority and emotion. In many societies, they form the basis of leadership actions where secular authority is of utmost importance. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 38  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP We should also ask the question, „What motivates and inspires leaders and followers to work in extraordinary ways? Is it for the money?‰ The answer lies in something else. It is connected with emotions, values and our connections with other people which count a great deal but are downplayed as sources of motivation. As an illustration, we can cite the example of a billionaire who makes billions of dollars but he travels economy class, does not employ a driver and lives in a modest house. He spends millions of dollars annually on helping the poor. He finds satisfaction in doing that and his ability to help the poor and others who are in need motivates him to work in extraordinary ways. He feels that it is a religious duty for him to work in the best means he can and whatever profits he earned is a trust from God that should benefit the society he lives in, where he is a part of it. Sources of authority for leadership are also important. In a traditional sense, bureaucratic authority, psychological authority and technical-rational authority are cited, but Sergiovanni (1991) considered moral authority also as important. Moral authority which is based on sacred authority would make a leader walk the extra mile. The leader is willing to do the ordinary chores such as cleaning the toilets as he believes in „leadership by example‰ which is the basis for moral leadership. In other words his motivation is intrinsic in nature. His rewards do not come from worldly things but in the hereafter. When moral values become part of leadership, then leadership will become less important and schools will be transformed from organisations into communities where professionalism is viewed as statement of competence and as a virtue. When this situation has become a tradition, every member of the community will be self- motivated and the motivation is mostly driven by their moral intrinsic values. Theoretically, the organisation would function well even though there is no designated leader. In a school setting, collegiality among the teachers will be an important characteristic of moral leadership. Collegiality is a professional virtue which comes from within the teachers themselves where they would help each other to strive for greater heights in achieving the objectives that were also set by them. By building shared values, empowerment in all areas of concern, collegiality among all staff members would make schools more effective and whatever transformation that the school desired would achieve its targets. Transformational leadership with the principles of moral values would probably make the leader and the organisation more effective. The problem of indiscipline among students and staff would be less severe and more manageable if the students value the moral principles that govern their behaviour as well as the leadership style of their leaders. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  39 In modern secular societies moral values are relative and, as the result of this stand, they tend to be overlooked and side-lined whenever major paradigm shifts have to be implemented. It sometimes causes a breakdown in family and societal values that can result in grave social problems. The same thing can occur in our education system if we were to exclude moral values. Before we are able to inculcate moral values among our students, the school leadership and the teachers should be the prime examples of moral virtues. These moral values should be present in all decisions, management, communication and relationships between every individual in the schools. The effectiveness of any programme depends on the right combination of variables which include the right fundamental philosophy and values of the organisation and individuals, a sound vision, strategic plans, the right knowledge and skills of the members and a leader who is wise, knowledgeable, knows what leadership approaches to adopt and withholds high moral values. SELF-CHECK 1.12 1. What is moral leadership? 2. What do supporters of moral leadership believe in strongly? ACTIVITY 1.15 1. „If the administration of a school does not base itself on moral values, it will face grave problems of indiscipline among students as well as teachers‰. Do you agree? Explain. 2. Are Malaysian schools lacking in moral leadership? Give your views. Share your answers with your coursemates in myINSPIRE online forum.  Leadership is associated with interpersonal influence, communication, goal attainment, motivation and coordination and willingness to take blame.  The distinction between leadership and management is critical but to be effective, an organisation needs to be nourished by both competent management and leadership. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 40  TOPIC 1 THE NATURE OF LEADERSHIP  The nine roles of a leader are figurehead, spokesperson, negotiator, coach, team builder, team player, technical problem solver, entrepreneur and strategic planner.  This topic looked into the leader from a solo perspective, based on the great man theory, where leadership is seen to be practised by one person who occupies the top position.  An effective leader possesses 10 traits: a skilled communicator, an educator, an envisioner, a facilitator, a change master, a culture builder, an activator, a producer, a character builder and a contributor.  The idea of leadership as an influence process evolved from the solo leader concept when leadership is viewed as charismatic, transformational and transactional.  Moral leadership is considered important and by incorporating moral values and beliefs, transformational leadership would be more potent.  Instructional leadership is an important leadership style in education setting. 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Managers and leaders: Are they different? Harvard Business Review, 55 (5), 67ă78. Zaslow, J. (1998, January 30ăFebruary 1). Joe Montana: Leadership, says the legendary quarterback of four super bowls, means being „willing to take the blame‰. USA Weekend, pp. 15. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)