Memory Lecture Notes PDF

MEMORY KARTINI ILIAS (Ph.D) SENIOR LECTURER/CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, UiTM LECTURE OVERVIEW ◦ The Nature of Memory ◦ Forgetting ◦ Biological Bases of Memory ◦ Memory and the Criminal Justice System ◦ Using Psychology to Improve Our M...

MEMORY KARTINI ILIAS (Ph.D) SENIOR LECTURER/CLINICAL PSYCHOLOGIST FACULTY OF HEALTH SCIENCES, UiTM LECTURE OVERVIEW ◦ The Nature of Memory ◦ Forgetting ◦ Biological Bases of Memory ◦ Memory and the Criminal Justice System ◦ Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory The Nature of Memory ◦ Memory: an internal record or representation of some prior event or experience; a constructive process in which we actively organize and shape information as it is processed, stored, and retrieved; 4 models of memory ◦ 1. Information Processing Model- Memory is analogous to a computer-encoding, storage, and retrieval. ◦ 2. Parallel Distributed Processing Model- contents of memory are represented as a vast number of interconnected units distributed throughout a huge network, all operating in parallel- simultaneously; ◦ 3. Levels of processing model- Memory depends on the degree or depth of mental processing occurring when material is initially encountered. ◦ 4. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model- Memory requires three different storage boxes to hold and process information for various lengths of time. 1. Information Processing Model ◦ This model compares human memory to a computer's processes, with three main stages: encoding, storage, and retrieval. ◦ Encoding: This is the process of taking in information. It can involve visual, auditory, or semantic (meaning-based) input. Just like typing data into a computer, we process sensory information from the world around us. ◦ Storage: Once information is encoded, it needs to be stored. Memory storage can be short-term or long-term, depending on how much attention we pay to the information and whether we actively review or practice it. ◦ Retrieval: This involves accessing the stored information when needed. Think of opening a saved document on a computer. Retrieval can be quick and easy if information is well-rehearsed, but it might be harder to access if it’s not regularly practiced.  Application in Daily Life ◦ This model is useful in understanding study habits. ◦ For example, if you encode information effectively by paying attention and relate it to what you already know, you’re more likely to store it well. ◦ When you regularly test yourself, you improve your ability to retrieve information, making it easier to remember in real-life situations.  2. Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model ◦ This model proposes that memory involves a vast network of interconnected units (neurons in the brain) that process information simultaneously, rather than step-by-step. ◦ It’s sometimes referred to as the "connectionist" model. ◦ Parallel Processing: Instead of information moving through one stage at a time, our brains process multiple inputs at once. For example, when you see a face, you simultaneously process features like color, shape, and expression. ◦ Distributed Representation: Memory is distributed across various interconnected networks. This means that recalling one piece of information might trigger related memories because they’re linked in a network.  Application in Daily Life ◦ The PDP model explains why a certain smell might suddenly remind you of a childhood memory or why hearing a song can bring back associated emotions. ◦ This model is useful in complex real-world tasks, like multitasking, where your brain is managing various pieces of information at once.  3. Levels of Processing Model ◦ This model, proposed by Craik and Lockhart, suggests that memory retention depends on the depth of processing. The deeper you process information, the better it is stored and retained. ◦ Shallow Processing: This involves superficial engagement with information, like just looking at a word's font or counting syllables. Shallow processing often leads to weaker memory retention. ◦ Deep Processing: This involves making meaningful connections with the information, such as understanding the meaning of a word, relating it to other knowledge, or visualizing it. Deep processing enhances memory retention.  Application in Daily Life ◦ If you’re trying to remember someone’s name, you’ll have a better chance if you make an association, like thinking, "Jack loves to travel" if he talked about his latest trip. Processing the information at a deeper level helps it stick.  4. Traditional Three-Stage Memory Model ◦ This model divides memory into three stages—sensory memory (brief impressions), short-term memory (temporary holding), and long-term memory (lasting storage). ◦ Sensory Memory: This is the briefest stage, where sensory input (e.g., sights, sounds, smells) is registered for just a fraction of a second. If you don’t focus on the sensory information, it quickly fades. ◦ Short-Term Memory (STM): If sensory information is attended to, it moves into STM, where it can be held for about 20–30 seconds. STM has a limited capacity (about 7±2 items), so it’s where we process information we need briefly, like a phone number. ◦ Long-Term Memory (LTM): With rehearsal or meaningful association, information from STM can move into LTM, where it can be retained for extended periods. LTM has an essentially unlimited capacity, but recall depends on how well the information is stored and organized. Application ◦ This model is helpful in organizing study techniques. For example, repeating information or making it personally meaningful helps it move from STM to LTM. ◦ In daily life, this model explains why sometimes you quickly forget information (it stays in sensory memory) or remember things like your childhood home address (stored in LTM). Sensory Memory ◦ preserves a brief replica of sensory information; ◦ It has a large capacity and information lasts between one-half to 4 seconds. ◦ Selected information is sent to short-term memory. Sperling’s experiment with sensory memory Short-Term Memory ◦ involves memory for current thoughts; ◦ STM can hold 5-9 items for about 30 seconds before they are forgotten. ◦ The capacity of STM can be increased with chunking; ◦ Information can be stored longer than 30 seconds through maintenance rehearsal. ◦ STM is also a working memory & is more than a passive temporary holding area; ◦ Active processing of information also occurs in STM as a visuospatial sketchpad, phonological rehearsal loop and central executive; Long-Term Memory: ◦ a relatively permanent memory storage with an unlimited capacity. ◦ To improve LTM, we can use organization, elaborative rehearsal, and retrieval cues (recognition and recall). Types of Long Term Memories https://www.verywellmind.com/different-types-of- memory-and-their-functions-5194859  Forgetting ◦ Ebbinghaus found that forgetting occurs most rapidly immediately after learning. ◦ Relearning takes less time. https://www.verywellmind.com/forgetting-about- psychology-2795034 5 theories of forgetting ◦ 1. Decay theory: memory degrades/deteriorates with time. ◦ 2. Interference theory: one memory competes with another memory; 5 theories of forgetting ◦ 3. Motivated forgetting: people forget things that are painful, threatening, or embarrassing; ◦ 4. Encoding failure: information in STM isn’t encoded in LTM; ◦ 5. Retrieval failure: memories stored in LTM are momentarily inaccessible. Overcoming Problems with Forgetting ◦ 1. Serial position effect: remembering material at the beginning and end of the list better than material in the middle; ◦ 2. Source amnesia: forgetting the true source of a memory; ◦ 3. Sleeper effect: initially discounting information from an unreliable source, but later judging it as reliable because the source is forgotten; ◦ 4. Spacing of practice: distributed practice is found to be superior to massed practice. Biological Bases of Memory A. There are changes in neurons though long-term potentiation which happens in at least 2 ways: repeated stimulation of a synapse can strengthen the synapse; the ability of a particular neuron to release its neurotransmitters can be increased or decreased. B. There are changes in hormones which affect various brain structures. flashbulb memories: vivid images of circumstances associated with surprising or strongly emotional events; C. Memory tends to be localized and distributed throughout the brain — not just in the cortex. Biological Causes of Memory Loss: Injury and Disease ◦ Amnesia: loss of memory as a result from serious brain injury or trauma; Retrograde amnesia Anterograde amnesia ◦ Alzheimer’s disease: progressive mental deterioration characterized by severe memory loss; Memory and the Criminal Justice System ◦ 2 areas of memory problems that have profound legal implications: Eyewitness accounts- very persuasive but can be flawed; Repressed memories- debate as to whether recovered memories are accurate. Using Psychology to Improve Our Memory Strategies for improving memory: 1. Pay attention and reduce interference; 2. Use rehearsal techniques; 3. Improve your organization; 4. Counteract the serial position effect; 5. Manage your time; 6. Use the encoding specificity principle; 7. Employ self-monitoring and overlearning; 8. Use mnemonic devices;