Chem 113 Lecture Notes - Pearson PDF

Chem 113- Welcome! Course coordinator : Dr. Golsa Zeiarati 2 Lab/Recitation instructors: Dr. Gazaryan and Dr. Kundu 6 Lab sections Study the syllabus and the Lab calendar Passing mark is B- (80-83) Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Why...

Chem 113- Welcome! Course coordinator : Dr. Golsa Zeiarati 2 Lab/Recitation instructors: Dr. Gazaryan and Dr. Kundu 6 Lab sections Study the syllabus and the Lab calendar Passing mark is B- (80-83) Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Why do nursing students need to take a Chemistry course? Chemistry plays a vital role in understanding the relationship between molecules and the human body, specifically the processes that take place at the cellular level, and so, nursing students need to take a course in this subject. Chemistry will help you understand physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology, all important subjects in assessing, treating, and monitoring patients. As an example, Chemistry explains how your cells produce energy and proteins, why you breathe, your blood type, what sorts of foods and vitamins are important for nutrition. With a basic understanding of chemistry, you can understand why your organs function the way they do and how the systems of your body work together. Topics: A&P 1 - C. Bisi-Hernandez · Matter -Forms · Elements- Structure · Atomic Structure: Bohr Model: electron, proton, neutrn; atomic #; mass # · Chemical Bonding: Covalent, Ionic, Hydrogen · Electrolyte formation · Complex Ions · Chemical Reactions: § Anabolism § Catabolism § Reversible reactions § Exchange reactions · Acids-Bases-pH Scale · Buffering System · Condensation/Hydrolytic Reactions Carbohydrates: § Monosaccharides § Disaccharides § Polysaccharides · Lipids: o Saturated fats o Unsaturated fats o Trans Fats o Steroids · Proteins: o Peptide bonds o Levels of Structural Organization o Enzymes · Nucleic Acids: o DNA; RNA § Replication § Complementary Base Pairing · ATP – design and formation General, Organic, and Biological Chemistry Fourth Edition Chapter 1 Chemistry Basics—Matter and Measurement Janet L. Maxwell Angelo State University San Angelo, TX Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Classifying Matter: Pure Substance or Mixture Matter is anything that takes up space and that weighs something There are two types of matter: pure substances and mixtures. Pure substances are classified as elements or compounds. Mixtures are classified as homogeneous or heterogeneous. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Classifying Matter: Pure Substance or Mixture A pure substance is matter that is made up of only one type of substance and can be represented with one chemical formula or symbol. Examples: compounds: water, salt or elements: gold, oxygen. An element is the simplest type of matter because it is made up of only one type of atom. An atom is the smallest unit of matter that keeps its unique characteristics. A compound is a pure substance made of two or more elements chemically joined together. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Classifying Matter: Pure Substance or Mixture A mixture is a combination of two or more substances. A mixture can be separated into its different components. A homogeneous mixture is one whose composition is the same throughout. A heterogeneous mixture is one whose composition is not uniform but varies throughout. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.1 Classifying Matter: Pure Substance or Mixture Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) Which of the following is an example of a heterogeneous mixture? A) Sugar water B) Trail mix C) Air D) Vodka 2) Which of the following is a pure substance? A) Sugar B) Sand C) Gold D) Maple syrup 3) Which of the following is not a pure substance? A) Gasoline (mixture of aliphatic & aromatic hydrocarbons) B) Ammonia C) Iodine crystals D) Steam Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Atoms All matter is made up of atoms. What is the structure of an atom? Bohr Model Atoms can join together to form molecules, which make up most objects. Different elements (e.g. oxygen, carbon, uranium) are made up of different types of atoms. An atom is the smallest unit of an element that will behave as that element. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bohr Model Atom has a nucleus, in it there are neutrons and protons. Neutrons have no charge, protons carry a positive charge. Electrons orbit this nucleus and are negatively charged. The Bohr Model is a planetary model in which the negatively charged electrons orbit a small, positively charged nucleus similar to the planets orbiting the sun. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Bohr Model In the Bohr model, electrons are pictured as traveling in circles at different shells, depending on which element you have. Bohr diagrams for lithium, fluorine and aluminum atoms. The shell closest to the nucleus is called the K shell, next is the L shell, next is the M shell. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Octet Rule Electrons fill orbit shells in a consistent order. Under standard conditions, atoms fill the inner shells (closer to the nucleus) first, often resulting in a variable number of electrons in the outermost shell. The innermost shell has a maximum of two electrons, but the next two electron shells can each have a maximum of eight electrons. This is known as the octet rule which states that, with the exception of the innermost shell, atoms are more stable energetically when they have eight electrons in their valence shell, the outermost electron shell. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table The periodic table of the elements is a listing of all the elements on earth. The periodic table consists of many small blocks. Each block holds a different element. Each has a letter or two in its center and numbers above and below these letters. The letters are the chemical symbol and represent the name of each element. For many elements, the symbols are derived from the name of the element. Some symbols are derived from Latin such as Na for sodium (natrium) and Au for gold (aurum). Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1)Which of the following is an element? A) Carbon dioxide B) Sodium C) Ammonia D) Sand 2) Which one of these combinations represent only alkali metals? I. Li II. Ba III. Rb IV. Ca A) I + II B) III + IV C) I + III D) II + IV Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table A vertical column is a group of elements with similar chemical behaviors. Each group has a number and letter designation. – A designations for main-group elements. – B designations for transition elements. A system using numbers 1 through 18 for the columns, recommended by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), is also used. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table A horizontal row is known as a period. Periods are numbered from 1 to 7, with sections of Periods 6 and 7 set apart at the bottom of the periodic table. The staircase-shaped line, which begins at boron, separates metals from nonmetals. Elements bordered by the line, with the exception of aluminum (Al), are metalloids. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) Which element is in period 4 and group 7B in the periodic table? A) Mn B) Tc C) Br D) I Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table Several elements are essential for human health. Those needed in the largest quantity are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, which make up most biological molecules. Macronutrients are needed in quantities greater than 100 m g per day. They include sodium, magnesium, illi ram potassium, calcium, and chlorine. Micronutrients are needed in quantities less than 100 m g per day. They include iodine, fluorine, iron, zinc, illi ram and other elements. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1)Which one of these combinations represent only macronutrients? I. O II. I III. K IV. P A) I + II B) III + IV C) II + III D) I + IV Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 2) Which one of these combinations represent only micronutrients? I. N II. Cl III. Fe IV. Se A) I + II B) III + IV C) II + III D) I + IV Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1)Which one of these micronutrients has an important role in thyroid hormones? A) F B) Se C) I D) Cu 2)Which one of these micronutrients is found in hemoglobin? A) Cu B) Zn C) Fe D) F 3) Which one of these micronutrients has an important role in teeth and bones? A) Mn B) I C) Se D) F Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table A pure substance containing two or more chemically combined elements is a compound. Compounds combine elements in specific ratios. Chemical formulas show that water (H2O) is composed of two particles of hydrogen and one particle of oxygen, and table salt (NaCl) is composed of one sodium and one chlorine. A chemical formula identifies which elements and how many atoms of each element are present in a compound. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions Which of the following combinations represent compounds rather than elements? I. O2 II. CCl4 III. S8 IV. H2O A) I + II B) III + IV C) I + III D) II + IV Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 How Matter Changes Physical Change A change in the state of matter represents a physical change. In a physical change, the form of the matter is changed, but its identity remains the same. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 How Matter Changes Chemical Change A chemical change results in a change in the chemical identity of a substance. When a substance undergoes such a change, it is referred to as a chemical reaction. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) Which of the following is not a physical change? A) Boiling water B) Dissolving kool-aid C) Frying an egg D) Liquefying oxygen 2) What are some examples of chemical changes: Burning of paper and log of wood, Digestion of food, Boiling an egg, Chemical battery usage, Electroplating a metal, Baking a cake, Milk going sour, Various metabolic reactions that take place in the cells, Rotting of fruits, Decomposition of waste, The explosion of fireworks, The reaction between salts and acids (neutralization rxn), Rusting of iron, Lighting a matchstick Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 How Matter Changes Chemical Equations A chemical equation shows what happens to the substances involved in a chemical reaction. Carbon and oxygen are the reactants, and carbon dioxide is the product. The reaction arrow means “react to form.” The labels in parentheses after each substance indicate its physical state—(s)olid, (l)iquid, (g)as, or (aq)ueous [which means dissolved in water] Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 How Matter Changes Balancing Chemical Equations For each equation we write, the number of atoms must be the same on both sides of the equation, or balanced. Matter only changes form, so the amount of matter on the reactant side and product side must be equal. This illustrates the law of conservation of mass. We can balance chemical equations when necessary by adding a number, called a coefficient, in front of the chemical formula for a substance in the chemical equation. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 How Matter Changes Balancing a Chemical Equation Step 1 Examine the original equation. Is it balanced? If not, proceed to step 2. Step 2 Balance the equation one element at a time by adding coefficients. Balance elements that appear only once on a side first. Step 3 Check to see if the equation is balanced. The coefficients should represent the smallest possible set of numbers (not all divisible by another number). Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) What is the coefficient for O2 when this equation is balanced with the lowest whole number coefficients? C3H7OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O (propanol combustion rxn) A) 4 B) 5 C) 9 D) 10 Write down the number of atoms per element Save hydrogen and oxygen for last, as they are often on both sides Start with single elements. If you have more than one element left to balance, select the element that appears in only a single molecule of reactants and in only a single molecule of products. This means that you will need to balance the carbon atoms first Balance H and O next Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Answer C3H7OH + O2 → CO2 + H2O C=3 C=1 H=8 H=2 O=3 O=3 First balance Carbons C=3 C=1→3 H=8 H=2 O=3 O=3 C3H7OH + O2 → 3CO2 + H2O Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Answer Balance Hydrogen C=3 C=3 H=8 H=2 O=3 O=10 C3H7OH + O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O Balance oxygen C=3 C=3 H=8 H=8 O=3 O=10 (work with O2 -> 10 oxygen minus 1 from C3H7OH is 9) C3H7OH + 9/2 O2 → 3CO2 + 4H2O 2(C3H7OH + 9/2 O2 )→ 2 (3CO2 + 4H2O) C=6 C=6 H=16 H=16 O=20 O=20 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts For measurements to be easily compared, a defined measurement system is needed. The Système International d’Unités (SI) is the modern- day version of the metric system. – The standard unit for mass is the kilogram (kg). – The standard unit for volume is the liter (L). – The standard unit for length is the meter (m). Prefixes can be applied to metric system units that change the meaning of the unit by powers of 10. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Prefix Abbreviation Relationship to Base Unit giga G × 1,000,000,000 mega M × 1,000,000 kilo k × 1000 base unit (has no prefix) blank × 1 (gram, liter, meter) deci d ÷ 10 centi c ÷ 100 milli m ÷ 1000 micro µ or mc ÷ 1,000,000 nano n ÷ 1,000,000,000 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Quantities that can be related to each other by an equal sign are equivalent units: 1 d L = 0.1 L. eci iter iter Such equivalencies can be used as conversion factors to convert one unit to another using one or more of these factors. 10 dL 1L or 1L 10 dL Conversion factors allow you to convert a quantity from one unit to the equivalent quantity in a different unit. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts This use of converting units to an equivalent unit is also called dimensional analysis. Step 1 Determine the units on your final answer. Step 2 Establish the given information. Step 3 Decide how to set up the problem. Which conversion factor should be used to leave the desired unit in the answer? desired unit Given unit  given unit Step 4 Solve the problem. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Significant Figures Measuring matter relies on the precision of the instruments that we use to measure it. i.e. we typically measure insulin in 1cc syringe It is important to report calculated answers reasonably. When reading a measurement from a nondigital device, there is some level of uncertainty in the measurement. In any measurement, the significant figures are the digits known with certainty plus one estimated digit. Digital devices automatically show us the number of significant figures in the digital readout. In any measurement, all nonzero numbers are considered significant. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Significant Figures—Zeros Zeros tend to be the “troublemakers” because their significance depends on their position in a number. If a zero in a number without a decimal point is significant, that can be shown by putting a decimal point after that zero (e.g. 450.0). Trailing zeros are significant only if the number has a decimal point i.e., 12.0300 has 6 sig figures Exact Numbers Numbers used in defined conversion factors and counted items are exact numbers with an infinite number of significant figures (e.g., 3 feet in 1 yard). Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts 1. A digit is significant if it is Rule Measurement Number of Significant Figures a. not a zero 41 grams 2 15.3 m eters 3 b. a zero between nonzero 101 L iters 3 digits 6.071 k g ilo rams 4 c. a zero at the end of a number 20.0 g rams 3 with a decimal point 9.800 °C elsius 4 2. A zero is not significant if it is Rule Measurement Number of Significant Figures a. at the beginning of a number 0.03 L iters 1 with a decimal point 0.00024 g rams 2 b. in a large number without a 12,000 k m ilo eters 2 decimal point 3,450,000 m eters 3 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Calculating Numbers and Rounding Adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing can result in numbers that seem more certain than they are. Manipulating measurements with arithmetic cannot increase their certainty. An answer can be no more certain than the least certain number in the calculation. Rules for Significant Figures in Calculations Addition and Subtraction. Answers should match the least number of decimal places in the measured numbers. Multiplication and Division. Answers should match the least number of significant digits in the measured numbers. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Rules for Rounding Numbers If the rightmost digit to be dropped (the one following your last retained significant figure) is 4 or less, simply remove it ie., rounded to the third sig figure 5.651->5.65 If the rightmost digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, increase the last retained digit by 1 and remove all other digits. 5.658->5.66 If rounding a large number with no decimal point, substitute zeros for numbers that are not significant ie., 1400 has 2 sig fig and 500 has 1. When conducting multiple-step calculations, do not round answers until the end of the calculation. Rounding at each step introduces rounding errors and produces incorrect answers. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Scientific Notation The general form for scientific notation is C  10n where C is called the coefficient and is a number that is at least 1 but less than 10, and n is the exponent telling us the number of tens places that apply. A positive exponent tells us that the actual number is greater than 1. A negative exponent tells us that the number is between 0 and 1. In scientific notation, only significant figures are shown in the coefficient. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Number Meaning Scientific Notation 1,000,000 10  10  10  10  10  10 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 1 10 1 times 106 to the sixth power 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 100,000 10  10  10  10  10 1 10 1 times 105 to the fifth power 10,000 10  10  10  10 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 1 10 1 times 104 to the fourth power 1000 10  10  10 10 times 10 times 10 1 times 103 to the third power 1 10 100 10  10 10 times 10 1 10 1 times 102 to the second power 10 10 1 10 1 times 101 to the first power 1 1 1 10 1 times 100 to the zeroth power 1 times 10−1to the power of negative one 1/ 10 1 10 1 over, 10 0. 1 0.01 1/ (10  10) 1 over, 10 times 10 1 times 10−2 1 10 to the power of negative two 0.001 1/ (10  10  10) 1 over, 10 times 10 times 10 1 times 10−3 1 10 to the power of negative three 0.0001 1/ (10  10  10  10) 1 over, 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 1 times 10−4 1 10 to the power of negative four 0.00001 1/ (10  10  10  10  10) 1 over, 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 1 times 10−5to the power of negative five 1 10 0.000001 1/ (10  10  10  10  10  10) 1 over, 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 times 10 1 times 10−6 1 10 to the power of negative six Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Scientific notation Examples: Original number → Scientific Notation 76300 → 7.63 ×104 2,560,000 → 2.56 ×106 0.000066 → 6.6 x10−5 0.005 → 5x10-3 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) How many significant figures are there in the following number: 53,000 pounds? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 2) Round the following number to 3 significant figures: 546.85 grams A) 546 B) 547 C) 546.9 D) 540 3) How many significant figures are there in the following number: 0.00458 grams? A) 1 B) 2 C) 3 D) 4 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Math Counts Percent Percent, represented by the symbol %, means the part out of 100 total, or hundredths. Percent allows us to directly compare two sets of numbers that have different total sizes. part Percent (%) =  100 whole A fraction can be converted to a percent by dividing the numerator by the denominator, multiplying by 100, and adding a percent sign. A decimal number can be converted to a percent by multiplying by 100 and adding a percent sign. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Mass Anything that takes up space can also be placed on a scale and weighed. Mass is a measure of the amount of material in an object. A common unit used to measure the mass of a substance is the gram (g). The weight of an object is determined by the pull of gravity on the object, and that force changes depending on location. As long as an object is weighed in roughly the same location on Earth’s surface, its mass and weight will have the same measured value. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Mass vs Weight Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Volume Volume is a three-dimensional measure of the space occupied by matter. In the lab, volumes are routinely measured with a graduated cylinder or a pipet. The unit typically used in the lab is the milliliter (mL). In a clinical setting, volumes are often measured with calibrated syringes. The typical unit in the clinical setting is the cubic centimeter (cc or cm3) One milliliter equals one cubic centimeter, and 5 milliliters is a teaspoon, 15 mL is a tablespoon. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) You need to administer 1500 mg of Keppra to a resident on a g- tube. Keppra liquid comes in 100 mg/mL. What volume of the liquid you need to measure? How many tablespoonful is that? Med comes in 100 mg per mL To make 1500 mL we need 15 mL. Each teaspoonful is 5 mL so that would be 3 teaspoonfuls. 2) Which of these samples has the largest volume? A) 2.0 L B) 25 dL C) 250 mL D) 2500 μL Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Density Density (d) is a comparison (also called a ratio) of a substance’s mass (m) to its volume (V). m d= V One gram of water has a volume of one milliliter, so the density of water is 1.00 g /m L. ram illi iter Because the density of a substance is constant at a given temperature, we can use density values as conversion factors to determine either the mass or the volume of a substance. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Question 1) Which of the following substances has the highest density? A) A mass of 2.5 kg and a volume of 2.2 L B) A mass of 55 g and a volume of 45 mL C) A mass of 850 g and a volume of 65 dL D) A mass of 8.5 mg and a volume of 35 uL Must compare same units to each other (lets put everything in g/mL) A) 1.136 kg/L → 1136 g/1000 mL → 1.136 g/mL B) 1.22 g/mL C) 13.07 g/dL → 13.07 g/100 mL→ 0.1307 g/mL D) 0.24 mg/uL → 0.00024 g/0.001 mL→ 0.24 g/mL *pay attention to sig fig Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Specific Gravity Liquid density often is measured with respect to water. The density of water is 1.00 g /m L at 4 °C and close to that value at ram illi iter elsius body temperature (The density of water at 0 degree C is 0.999 g/mL, and at 99 degree C it is 0.958 g/mL) The ratio of the density of a sample to the density of water is called specific gravity (sp gr). density of sample Specific gravity = density of water Specific gravity is unitless because it is a ratio of 2 densities that have the same unit. The specific gravity of a liquid can be measured with a simple instrument called a refractometer. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Temperature We measure the temperature of substance to determine its hotness or coldness. This is often done using a thermometer or an electronic temperature probe. In the United States, we use the Fahrenheit scale while the rest of the world uses the Celsius scale. Scientists use yet another scale called the absolute, or Kelvin scale, in which the temperature unit is the Kelvin. The Kelvin is the SI unit for temperature. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Temperature The most straightforward way to compare temperature scales is to compare temperatures that we are most familiar with and observe their values on each scale. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Heat and Specific Heat Heat is kinetic energy flowing from a warmer body to a colder one. Note that heat is a form of energy. Every substance has the ability to absorb or lose heat as the temperature changes. The specific heat capacity, or specific heat of a substance, is the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g of ram that substance by 1 °C. elsius heat Specific heat (SH ) = grams  T Metals have low specific heat values. Water has a very high specific heat. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Temperature The Celsius and Kelvin scales have degrees of the same size, but the two scales are offset by 273 degrees. Kelvin (K) = Celsius (C) + 273 One degree on the Celsius scale is equal to 1.8 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale, and the “zero points” are offset by 32 degrees. 1C C = (F − 32 F)  1.8 F  1.8 F  F =   C  + 32 F  1C  Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Body Temperature Normal body temperature is 98.6 °Fahrenheit or 37.0 °C. elsius Body temperature varies from person to person and changes throughout the day. If human body temperature rises above 40.0 °C (104 °F ), a elsius ahrenheit condition known as hyperthermia exists. This condition can cause convulsion, coma, or permanent brain damage. If body temperature drops below 35 °C (95 °F ), a condition elsius ahrenheit known as hypothermia exists. A person in this condition feels cold, has an irregular heartbeat, and has a slow breathing rate. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Energy Energy is the capacity to do work or supply heat. Stored energy is called potential energy. The energy of motion is kinetic energy. Energy takes various forms, but it is never created or destroyed. This is the law of conservation of energy. The SI unit for energy is the joule (J). A calorie is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius. 1 calorie = 4.184 joules A nutritional Calorie (Cal) is 1000 times larger than a calorie. 1 Calorie = 1000 calories Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Substance Specific Heat (cal /g °C ) orie ram elsius Water (liquid) 1.00 Human body 0.83 Paraffin wax 0.60 Wood, soft 0.34 Wood, hard 0.29 Air 0.24 Aluminum 0.21 Table salt 0.21 Brick 0.20 Stainless steel 0.12 Iron 0.11 Copper 0.092 Silver 0.056 Gold 0.031 Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry States of Matter A state of matter is the physical form in which the matter exists. The three most common states of matter are solid, liquid, and gas. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry States of Matter The particles in a solid are in an orderly arrangement and are tightly packed together and moving only slightly. Solids have a definite shape and volume. The particles in a liquid are less orderly and moving freely. A liquid has a definite volume but takes the shape of its container. The particles in a gas have no orderly arrangement, are far apart from each other, move at high rates of speed, and often collide with each other and with the walls of their container. A gas has no definite shape or volume but expands to fill the container in which it is placed. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Matter: The “Stuff” of Chemistry Property of a Substance Solid Liquid Gas Adopts shape of Adopts shape of Shape Definite shape container container Fills volume of Volume Definite volume Definite volume container Lowest of the three More than solid, less Highest of the three Kinetic energy states than gas states Closely packed and Loosely packed, but Positioning of particles Far apart and random fixed random Attraction between particles Very strong Strong Practically none Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Accuracy and Precision Measuring with accuracy means that you are taking measurements close to the actual or true value. Measuring with precision means that you are taking measurements are similar in value, but may not be close to the actual value. In taking measurements, it is best to measure with both accuracy and precision. This can be accomplished by taking measurements several times and averaging their values. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Units and Dosing Health care professionals use SI or metric units but must also be familiar with the U.S. customary system of measurement. Property U.S Customary Unit SI or Metric Equivalent U.S. Customary Equivalent Unit Mass Pound (lb) 2.205 lb = 1 k g ilo ram 1 lb = 16 oz Volume Quart (qt) 1.057 q t = 1 L uar iter 1 q t = 4 cups uar Volume Fluid ounce (fl oz) 1 fl oz = 29.6 m L illi iters 1 cup = 8 fl oz Volume Teaspoon (tsp) 1 t sp = 4.93 m L ea oon illi iters 1 fl oz = 6 t sp ea oons Length Mile (mi) 1 mi = 1.6 k m le ilo eters 1 mi = 5280 f t le ee Length Inch (in.) 1 in. = 2.54 c m ch enti eters 1 f t = 12 in. ee ches Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Reading Lab Reports Patient results are given along with normal values. If the result is out of range, it is highlighted. The units vary widely (blood sugar mmol/L or mg/dL) Most of the units are metric. A deciliter (dL) is equal to 1/ 10 of a liter, or 100 m L. A mmole illi iters (millimole) is equivalent to one-thousandth of a mole. A mole is a unit used to count the particles in matter. A similar unit used for electrolytes is the milliequivalent (mEq). In the United States, body weight is usually measured in pounds, but pharmaceuticals are often dispensed by body weight in kilograms. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Calculating a Dosage Step 1 Determine the units for the final answer. Step 2 Determine the given information. Step 3 Determine conversion factors to cancel units. Step 4 Set up the equation with the given information and conversion factors so that all units cancel except the final answer unit. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Drop Units IV delivery of medications is often measured in drops per milliliter, abbreviated gtt/mL. The abbreviation gtt is short for the Latin gutta, which means drop. (Generally 20 drops per ml) The drop factor can be used to determine drip rates when a prescribed volume of medicine is required in a given time period. Drop factors vary with the diameter of IV tubing. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.6 Measuring Matter Percents in Health Percent Active Ingredient: Because of the high potency of many medicines, binders are often added to increase the size of a pill (i.e., methylcellulose). Percent of an Adult Dose: Because children weigh less than adults, they are often administered a percent of the dose required for an adult. Percent in Nutrition Labeling: Nutrition labels list the amount of carbohydrate, protein, and fat as well as the Percent Daily Value (%DV), showing the contribution of a single serving to the (suggested) daily dietary requirement. Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) Identify the correct ordering of attractions (strongest to weakest) among particles in the three states of matter. A) Solid < liquid < gas B) Solid > liquid > gas C) Gas < solid < liquid D) Solid < gas < liquid 2) The adult dose for a new drug has been calculated to be 360 mg. If the dose for a 25 lb child is recommended to be 26 % of the adult dose, what should the dose be? A) 9.4 mg B) 14 mg C) 94 mg D) 9.4 g 0.26X360=93.6 mg Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) What is the total dose required for a 140 lb patient if the amount required is 28 mg/kg bodyweight? A) 1.8 mg B) 1.8 g C) 3.9 mg D) 3.9 g Each lb is 2.2 kg 140lb/2.2 kg/lb= 63.6 kg 63.6 kg X 28 mg/kg = 1780.8 mg Which is 1.78 grams Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1) Calculate the mass percent of fat in a candy bar that contains 12 g fat, 26 g carbohydrate, 6 g protein, and 4 g of other material. A) 25 % B) 0.25 % C) 2.5 % D) 27 % 12 / (12+26+6+4)=12/48=0.25 which is 25% 2) An antacid tablet weighs 1.36 g. If the percent active ingredient of calcium carbonate is 38.2 %, what is the mass of calcium carbonate in the tablet? A) 28.1 mg B) 52.0 mg C) 281 mg D) 520 mg 0.382 X 1.36 g = 0.51952 g Each gram has 1000 mg so 519.52 mg→520 mg Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Test Questions 1)Which quantity measures the amount of space occupied by an object? A) Mass B) Weight C) Area D) Volume 2) Matter is nearly incompressible in which of these states? A) Gas B) Liquid C) Solid D) Solid and liquid 3) Which of the following statements best describes a liquid? A) Definite shape and volume B) Indefinite shape and volume C) Indefinite shape but definite volume D) Definite shape but indefinite volume Copyright © 2020 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved