01 - Human Geography PDF

01 - Human Geography Geog254_01History_KeySlides.pdf Notes Big History Timeline The Earth formed approximately 4,500 million years before present (MYBP). The first evidence of life can be traced to 3,600 MYBP. Primates first appeared just under 65 MYBP. The species Hominin...

01 - Human Geography Geog254_01History_KeySlides.pdf Notes Big History Timeline The Earth formed approximately 4,500 million years before present (MYBP). The first evidence of life can be traced to 3,600 MYBP. Primates first appeared just under 65 MYBP. The species Hominin first diverged from the chimpanzee family circa 7 MYBP. Modern humans emerged as Homo sapiens around 200,000 years ago. If this timeline were expressed in terms of a 24-hour period, with the first second being the formation of the Earth: Primates would emerge only at 21 minutes to midnight. Hominins just over 2 minutes to midnight. Homo sapiens a mere 4 seconds before midnight. First Migrations: The Peopling of the Planet Peter Bellwood created a map of the first farmers. Why Did the Neolithic Revolution Occur When It Did? Neolithic Revolution: People stopped wandering around to find food and started staying in one place to farm and raise animals. Several theories attempt to explain why the Neolithic Revolution occurred: 1. Climatic Theories: After the Ice Age, the climate became warmer and wetter, which made it easier for plants to grow and animals to stay in one place. This encouraged people to start farming instead of moving around to find food. 2. Human Progress Theories: Humans got smarter over time! People discovered better tools, understood plants and animals more, and figured out that growing crops and raising animals would make life easier than hunting and gathering.  3. Population Pressure Theories: There were too many people! As families grew, it got harder to find enough food in the wild. Farming was a way to feed more people and survive in larger groups. 4. Religious Theories: Farming might have started for spiritual reasons! Some believe early people began growing crops as part of religious rituals or offerings to gods, which then turned into a regular way of getting food. 5. Theories of Power: Farming gave control! Leaders or powerful groups might have encouraged farming because it helped them organize and control people, food, and resources better than hunting and gathering could. Why Did the Neolithic Revolution Occur Where It Did? Five watersheds mark the development of human civilization: 1. First Watershed: The Origins of the Human Species 2. Second Watershed: First Migrations and the Peopling of the Planet 3. Third Watershed: The Development of Human Culture and Invention of Settled Agriculture 4. Fourth Watershed: The Rise and Fall of Civilizations 5. Fifth Watershed: The Rise of Western Civilization from the Tenth Century BC Big History: From the Big Bang to the Sixth Mass Extinction The Early Civilizations, Glyn Daniels Theory (1968) Daniels's theory recognizes civilizations by the following characteristics: Agricultural revolution Town dwelling Complex social stratification Development of writing and the alphabet Complex ceremonial centers Trading patterns Glyn Daniels - The First Six Civilizations 5000YBP to 3200YBP Daniels identifies the first six civilizations as: Sumer Mesopotamia Egypt Indus China Meso-America Peru Arnold J Toynbee The History Of Civilizations Toynbee's A Study of History, published in 12 volumes from 1934 - 1961, identifies the following about civilizations: 21 civilizations and 5 arrested (failed to grow) civilizations in human history By 1940, 16 civilizations had disappeared. Only five surviving civilizations: ○ Western Christian ○ Orthodox Christian ○ Islamic ○ Hindu ○ Far Eastern Diamond’s Environmental Explanation Diamond posits that Eurasia's early and comparatively successful encounter with the Neolithic Revolution tipped the scales in favor of Eurasians, including Europeans. Microbes: the large quantity of domesticated mammals in Eurasia proved an effective breeding ground for new infectious diseases. European colonists and imperialists brought disease to the colonies. Germs became a more effective weapon than guns. Writing: Freed from the immediate demands of survival, societies with food surpluses began to invent alphabets and writing systems. Writing allowed complex colonial endeavors to be administered and coordinated. Weapons: Freed from the land, populations living in regions of food surplus could now develop complex divisions of labor and new skills. Technology allowed them to invent superior weapons. Centralized Political Institutions: Agricultural surpluses facilitated the development of larger and more complex societies and more sophisticated and capable centralized political institutions. A centralized political institution is a system where one main group or government has the most power and makes important decisions for everyone. For example, in a country, the national government might control things like laws, taxes, and the military for the whole nation, instead of letting smaller local governments make those decisions. It’s like having one big boss in charge of everything! Western Culture? These concepts raise questions about Western culture such as: The transformation from feudalism to capitalism in Europe? The rise of the world capitalist economy? The rise of nation-states? The rapacious European global empires? Nation-State: A whole country with its own land, people, and government (like Japan or France). “like a big team that has its own land, government, and people who mostly share a common language, culture, or history. Think of it like how a big sports team all wears the same jersey and has their own stadium. City-State: Just one city that’s its own little country (like Singapore or Vatican City). Super-independent. Run themselves without needing a bigger country to rule them Historical Western human geography examines the historical development of global regions......vis-à-vis the rise, reign, and stumbling of the ‘West’ as a cultural framework and global superpower. Denis E. Cosgrove on historical context: Between 1400 and 1900, much of Europe and the society it founded in North America were progressing towards a characteristic form of social and economic organization which we now term capitalist. (making capital $$$) In developing a capitalist mode of production, Europeans established and achieved a dominance over a global economy and a global division of labor which remains a critical determinant of our present social and economic geography. This is a phenomenon of central historical importance in making sense of our own world. Western Geographical Traditions: Contexts that mattered The following contexts matter in the development of Western geographical traditions: Age of reconnaissance Scientific revolution and its alter ego, alchemy European enlightenment and age of reason Pre-Darwinian expedition tradition Darwinism and the institutional politics of the nineteenth-century European academy European imperial expansion, colonization, and scientific racism Shifting understandings of the nature/culture nexus Technological change and the quantitative revolution Fallible! The West’s formula falters… The West's formula is faltering due to: Ecocide: A Global Climate and Ecological Crisis Boom and Bust: Global Economic Crises Populism: Democracy in Crisis White Shift: Unresolved Identity & Inclusion Issues Burnout: A Mental Health Crisis Technology Crisis Left Behind: Inequalities Everywhere Four Theories Explaining the Rise, Reign, and Faltering of the West David Harvey identifies four theories that explain the rise, reign, and faltering of the West: 1. Story 1 - Only in the West because of favorable environmental conditions 2. Story 2- First in the West, then elsewhere 3. Story 3 - Because in the West, not elsewhere 4. Story 4 - The West versus the Rest “O.F.B.V” “only fans be vile” Geog254_01_3Maps.pdf Notes Locating a Point on the Planet A point on the planet can be located by: …by name ○ Toponym (given name) …by site ○ Physical characteristics of a place (climate, soil, elevation, etc) ○ Topographic maps …by situation ○ Relative location to other places …by mathematical location ○ Latitude and longitude on maps (location) The following can be used to deduce a point's relative location on a map: 1. Map Features (physical, human) 2. Map Scale 3. Map Distortions (area, angle) Point’s relative Location deduced by… F.S.D Cartography and Scale Cartographers decide how much of the Earth's surface to display on a map. Scale: The relationship between a feature’s size on a map and its actual size on Earth. Three Ways to Represent Scale Fraction or Ratio Written Statement Graphic Bar Shows the fraction of an Shows the use of simple Shows the distance between two object or land feature on the words to describe a or more prominent landmarks. A map. prominent surface common element on a map distance. layout. Any unit can be chosen as long as they are the same on the map and on the ground.  Unit: Distance 1:24,000 = For every 1 cm measured on a map, there are 24,000 cm of real distance. The appropriate scale depends on the information to be displayed. Large Scale and Small Scale Maps Large Scale (zoomed in) Small Scale (zoomed out) Small portion of the Earth’s surface (e.g., Large portion of the Earth’s surface (i.e., neighbourhood). the city of Calgary). Provides a wealth of details about the place Omits many details because of a lack of represented. space to project onto a map. The more you zoom into a map, the more you Can effectively communicate processes can pick up minute information. and trends that affect everyone. Elements of a Map The elements of a map include: DOGSTAILS ○ Date* ○ Orientation ○ Grid ○ Scale ○ Title* ○ Author* ○ Inset ○ Legend ○ Source* *These four elements usually appear on a map, though not always together. Map Scale Scale determines the numerical ratio between distances on the map and the Earth’s surface. Example: 1: 100,000 indicates that 1 unit (cm/inch/m,…) on the map represents 100,000 units (cm/inch/m,…) on Earth's surface. “Small scale” = large area covered, little detail given (globe). “Large scale” = small area covered, but more detail given (neighbourhood). Stated in map legend as: ○ Ratio 1:100,000  ○ Fraction 1/100,000 ○ Written “1cm equals 1km” ○ Graphic bar 0 1km History of Cartography Emergence of Cartographic Mapping Ancient Greece and Maps The Greeks are considered the founders of scientific cartography because: They knew the general size and shape of the Earth. They developed the grid system of latitude and longitude. Eratosthenes calculated the size of the Earth using math and observations of the sun. (grandness/girth) Spherical Earth – Early Cartography Aristotle (384-322 BC) First to demonstrate that the Earth was spherical based on the following observations: ○ Matter falls together toward a common center. ○ Earth’s shadow on the Moon is circular during an eclipse. ○ Visible groups of stars change as one travels north or south. Erastosthenes (276-194 BC) Accepted that the Earth was spherical. Calculated the Earth’s circumference within 0.5% accuracy. Prepared one of the earliest maps of the known world, correctly dividing Earth into five climatic regions. Ptolemy (100-170 BC) Greek scholar Wrote an eight-volume Guide to Geography. Prepared numerous maps, which were not improved upon for centuries. Maps in the Dark Ages (476-1000) During the Dark Ages, when the study of science fell out of favor in Europe, Arab cartographers kept maps alive. They preserved and translated the works of Ptolemy to Arabic. Arab cartographers produced the first reliable globe of the Western world. Maps in the Middle Ages (500-1500) Cartographers drew maps of their religious beliefs during the Middle Ages. One of the most famous maps from this time is the O & T map. ○ O: symbolized the world and oceans. ○ T: symbolized rivers that split the continents. River Nile (Africa and Asia) Mediterranean Sea (Africa and Europe) River Don (Asia and Europe) The holy city of Jerusalem was placed at the center of these maps. Islamic Golden Age (622-1258) Arab cartographers used mathematical and astronomical formulas to create different map projections. In 1154, al-Idrisi made a map of the world that was better than the European maps. It included the continent of Eurasia, including Scandinavia, the Arabian Peninsula, the island of Sri Lanka, and the Black and Caspian Seas. Al-Idrisi (1154) Created a south-oriented map. One of the most accurate world maps prior to the age of European exploration. Maps in the 15th Century Printing and engraving allowed map production to increase dramatically. The Age of Discovery. Cartographers were able to add things to maps such as: ○ Interiors of a continent ○ Coastlines Maps from the 16th to the 19th Centuries As explorations of the new world continued, various continents were added onto maps: (AAA) Americas – 16th century Australia – 17th century Antarctica – 19th century Important Explorations of Western Civilization See pages 21-23 for a list of important explorations of Western civilization from about 330 BC to 1831. Mercator Map of 1595 (Miridians at right corner, and mix of other maps) Combined existing maps British explorations Mercator's theories on the location of the pole Two Purposes of Maps Maps have two main purposes: 1. Storing reference material (like a book) ○ Helps to learn where things are located. 2. Communicating geographic information ○ Human activities ○ Physical landscapes ○ Spatial distributions and flows Cultural self-critiques, hegemony of perspectives and the power of framing: Always be aware of authors and underlying socio-cultural frameworks. The history of human geography is NOT the same as a history of European-Anglo-American human geography framed by a European-Anglo-American geographer. Map Projections Remember... Maps are two-dimensional representations of the Earth’s surface. They are never perfect. Mapping Earth The Earth is a spherical body: ○ Close to an oblate spheroid (bulged 40km at the equator). ○ Actual shape: geoid with gravitation anomalies Earth diameter: 12,742 km Circumference 40,000km Projections of a Sphere Every map is distorted. The Earth cannot be projected on a 2D map without distortion for all components: ○ Distance ○ Direction  ○ Area ○ Shape ○ Proximity It is important to choose the projection wisely, according to its intended purpose! Preserved Properties Equal area = no distortion in the size of two areas. Equidistant = no distortion in the distance between two points. Conformal (angle-preserving) = map shows no distortion in the angle. Mathematical Grid of the Earth Meridians indicate the longitude. They are grand circles of the Earth. Parallels indicate the latitude. They are NOT grand circles. How to Use the Mathematical Grid: 1. Latitude (parallel = East/West). 2. Longitude (meridian = North/South). (longitude is the longer vertical bars joining the horizontal bars (latitude) ○ e.g. 10ºN 42ºE Flat Projections of a Spherical Body Large scale map: grid remains nearly square. Small scale map: grid is highly distorted. Mercator Projection Equi-Rectangular Projection Meridians = lines Meridians and parallels form equal squares. Distortions: NOT equal area, NOT conformal Uses: thematic mapping; easy digital processing Gall-Peters Projection Meridians = straight lines EQUAL AREA; not conformal Sinusoidal Projection Projection with equal area AND equally spaced horizontal parallels. ‘The’ Mercator Projection In 1569, cartographer Gerardus Mercator created a revolutionary new map based on a cylindrical projection. Advantages: conformal (equal angle) → great for nautical navigation. Every line on the map is a constant course, or loxodrome, for ships to navigate. Disadvantages: NOT equal area; large distortions. The further away from the equator, the larger the distortions of area size. 1569 Mercator Map Introducing straight navigation lines (rhumb lines). NOT equal area; large distortions. BUT conformal (equal angle) allows easy navigation. Tissot’s Indicatrix of Mercator projection: High latitude areas are extremely enlarged. ○ Greenland is presented as being roughly as large as Africa! (Africa is approximately 13 times that of Greenland). ○ Antarctica ○ Canada ○ USSR use in Cold War Cartography: Use and Implications for Human Geography Wide use in any related field (economic, cultural, historical, religious, ethnic geography etc) to: Depict the spatial distribution of human activities or processes. Show the spatial distribution of human activities in relation to natural features of the environment (resource use, desertification, transportation structures, etc). Implications: Boundary conflict Delineation of borders 9Delineation-So, for countries, delineation means carefully deciding exactly where one country’s land stops and another country’s land starts, kind of like drawing lines on a big map to show each country's space) Overlapping claims Perception of threats  Proximity, size, and power of foreign territories (political propaganda) Standard Time Zones – Impact of Transportation and Globalization Initially, every settlement set their own time. 19th century: railway lines called for better coordination between locations. ○ Faster transport overcomes spatial barriers → new global arrangements regarding space. … mid 19th century: international coordination of times into TIME ZONES became necessary. ○ Local protests, political interests resisted global influences. ○ International Date Line particularly heavy impact. Greenwich 1884: Coordinating Time and Space around the Globe “Greenwich Meridian” = Prime Meridian (0º Longitude). ○ → coordinated global mathematical grid: all longitudes calculated up to 180º east and west from here. “Greenwich Mean Time” = Universal Day ○ → one single-time reference worldwide ○ → global time reference: Mean Solar Day beginning at Greenwich, all time zones calculated up to 12 hours east and west from here Treaty of Tordesillas 1494 between Portugal and Spain The treaty divided the (largely undiscovered) world equally between the Spanish and the Portuguese, along a north-south meridian line 1770 km west of the Cape Verde islands. All lands to the east now belonged to Portugal, and all lands to the west belonged to Spain. Besides Brazil and the Moluccas, Portugal would eventually control other previously unknown territories such as Angola, Mozambique, Guinea-Bissau, and São Tomé and Príncipe in Africa; Goa and Daman and Diu in India; and East Timor and Macau in the Far East. Antarctica claims Antarctica is uninhabited but claimed by seven countries based on their own sectorial meridians. Three of these claims overlap (Argentina, Chile, UK). “The Blue Marble Photo” Famous picture of Earth from Apollo 17 (1972). The original photo was reversed to the North.  The photo was “corrected” to the North, as it became famous. Equal area – upside-down map Geog254_MidtermReview_KeySlides1.pdf Notes Geography as an Academic Discipline First formulated by ancient Greek scholar Erastosthenes (276-194 BC): Geo = Earth -graphy = to write Geography = to write about the earth Two main categories of geography: 1. Physical geography 2. Human geography Human geographers ask: Where are people and activities found on Earth? Why are they found there? Geographical Terms Place: Specific point on Earth distinguished by a particular character. Region: Area of Earth, distinguished by a distinctive combination of cultural and physical features. Scale: Relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole. Space: Physical gap or interval between two objects. Connections: Relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space. Spatial Analysis - Terms Distribution has 3 properties: 1. Density (#) 2. Concentration (closeness) 3. Pattern (arrangement/shape) In geography, distribution is all about how things like people, buildings, or animals are spread out over an area. When we look at distribution, we check out three main things:  1. Density: This means how many of something are in a specific area. Imagine you’re looking at a park. If there are a lot of people close together, it’s high density. If people are spread out, it’s low density. So, density shows how crowded or spaced out things are. 2. Concentration: This tells us whether things are close together or spread apart in an area. If a lot of houses are close together in one spot, they have high concentration. If they’re spread all around, it’s low concentration. 3. Pattern: This is about the arrangement or shape of things in a space. For example, houses in a neighborhood might be arranged in a straight line, a circle, or even scattered randomly. Pattern shows if there’s a design to how things are spread out. So, in geography, density tells us how much, concentration tells us how close, and pattern tells us what shape the distribution takes! Historical Western human geography examines the historical development of global regions......vis-à-vis the rise, reign, and stumbling of the ‘West’ as a cultural framework and global superpower. The ‘super’ in ‘superpower’: Super-Etymology: a prefix occurring originally in loanwords from Latin, with the basic meaning “above, beyond.” Words formed with super- have the following general senses: ○ “to place or be placed above or over” (superimpose; supersede). ○ “a thing placed over or added to another” (superscript; superstructure; supertax). ○ “situated over” (superficial; superlunary). ○ More figuratively, “an individual, thing, or property that exceeds customary norms or levels” (superalloy; superconductivity; superman; superstar). → Positional / relational description, not necessarily positive (e.g. ‘great’/’awesome’).