Introduction to Artificial Intelligence PDF

IT2206 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence 1. Practical intelligence: Contextual – This i...

IT2206 Introduction to Artificial Intelligence 1. Practical intelligence: Contextual – This involves a person's ability Artificial Intelligence to function effectively in a particular environment that imposes Intelligence is the ability to acquire and apply knowledge. It includes the ability different situations daily. to benefit from past experiences, act decisively to solve problems, and adapt 2. Creative intelligence: Experimental – This involves a person's to new situations (Gupta & Mangla, 2020). ability to adapt to new situations and produce new ideas. This encompasses the idea that there is a continuum of experience from The term Artificial Intelligence (AI) was coined by John McCarthy. Numerous novel to automation to which intelligence can be applied. definitions for AI have been proposed by scientists and researchers, such as 3. Analytical intelligence: Componential – This involves the IQ the following (Gupta & Mangla, 2020; Russell & Norvig, 2022): measurement of a person based on a standard IQ test. AI is a part of computer science that is concerned with designing intelligent computer systems that exhibit the characteristics associated with Foundations of Artificial Intelligence intelligence in human behavior. Philosophy AI is a branch of computer science that deals with the way of representing Common questions: knowledge using symbols rather than numbers and with heuristic methods o How does the mind arise from a physical brain? for processing information. o Where does knowledge come from? AI is not only concerned with understanding but also building intelligent o How does knowledge lead to action? entities or machines that can compute how to act effectively and safely in a wide variety of novel situations. The most vital element in the philosophical picture of the mind is the AI is one of the most interesting and fast-growing fields in the industry, connection between knowledge and action, since intelligence requires action which generates over a trillion dollars of revenue a year. as well as reasoning. Moreover, only by understanding how actions are AI currently encompasses a huge variety of subfields that involves wide- justified can we understand how to build an agent whose actions are justifiable. ranging intellectual tasks, such as playing chess, driving cars, diagnosing The following are some historical points in philosophy relevant to AI (Russell diseases and many more. & Norvig, 2022). Aristotle was the first to formulate a precise set of laws governing the The eight (8) types of intelligence proposed by Howard Gardner (Gupta & rational part of the mind. He developed an information system of Mangla, 2020): syllogisms for proper reasoning, which in principle allowed one to generate 1. Linguistic: spoken and written language skills conclusions mechanically, given the initial premises. 2. Logical-Mathematical: number skills Ramon Llull devised a system of reasoning published as Ars Magna or 3. Musical: performance or composition skills The Great Art, which involves a system that uses an actual mechanical 4. Spatial: ability to evaluate and analyze the visual world device: a set of paper wheels that could be rotated into different 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic: dance or athletic ability permutations. 6. Interpersonal: skills in understanding and relating to others Thomas Hobbes suggested the idea of a "thinking machine" and that 7. Intrapersonal: skills in understanding the self reasoning was like a numerical computation – adding and subtracting. 8. Nature: skills in understanding the natural world René Descartes gave the first clear discussion of the distinction between mind and matter. He expressed that a purely physical conception of the The Triarchic Theory of Intelligence that was proposed by Robert Sternberg mind seems to leave a little room for free will. In addition, he was also a contends that there are three (3) categories of intelligence which are practical proponent of dualism. intelligence, creative intelligence, and analytical intelligence, and these can David Hume proposed the principle of induction which encompasses the further be broken down into the following subcategories (Vinney, 2020): idea that general rules are acquired by exposure to repeat associations 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 1 of 4  IT2206 between elements, and this is through his work A Treatise of Human Neuroscience Nature. Common question: Rudolf Carnap and Carl Hempel attempted to analyze the acquisition of o How do brains process information? knowledge from experience, through the confirmation theory, by quantifying the degree of belief that should be assigned to logical Neuroscience is the study of the nervous system, particularly the brain. sentences based on their connections that may either confirm or not. Although the exact way in which the brain enables thought is one of the great mysteries of science, the fact that it does enable thought has been appreciated Mathematics for thousands of years. Brains and digital computers have slightly different Common questions: properties. Computers have a cycle time that is a million times faster than a o What are the formal rules that draw valid conclusions? brain, but the brain makes up for that with far more storage and interconnection o How do we reason with uncertain information? than high-end computers. Nonetheless, computers with virtually unlimited o What can be computed? capacity still require further conceptual breakthroughs in order to fully understand and possess human intelligence. The following are some The leap to a formal science required the mathematization of logic, probability, neuroscience developments that are relative to AI (Russell & Norvig, 2022): and the introduction of a new branch of mathematics that involves Paul Broca's investigation of aphasia (speech deficit) in brain-damaged computation. Below are the most significant development in the field of patients initiated the study of the brain's functional organization. mathematics which are relevant to AI (Russell & Norvig, 2022): Camillo Golgi developed the staining technique that allows the observation In mathematics, the idea of formal logic began with the work of George of individual neurons. Boole, who worked out the details of propositional logic, commonly known The measurement of intact brain activity began with the invention by Hans as Boolean Logic. Berger of the electroencephalograph (EEG) Gerolamo Cardano first framed the idea of probability, describing it in The development of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) gave terms of the possible outcomes of betting events. The theory of probability neuroscientists detailed images of brain activity, enabling measurements can be perceived as a process of generalizing the logic of situations with that correspond in interesting ways to ongoing cognitive processes. uncertain information, which is of great importance in AI development. The development of brain-machine interfaces for both sensing and motor Jacob Bernoulli, Pierre Laplace, and many others contributed in the control shed light on many aspects of neural systems. A remarkable advancement of the theory of probability and introduced new statistical finding from this work is that the brain is able to adjust itself to different methods. interfaces successfully with an external device, treating it in effect like The formalization of probability, combined with the availability of data, led another sensory organ. to the emergence of statistics as a field. Ronald Fisher is considered the first modern statistician who brought Psychology together the idea of probability, experiment design, analysis of data, and Common question: computing. o How do humans and animals think and act? Alan Turing tried to characterize exactly which functions on integers are computable – capable of being computed by an effective procedure. Psychology is the science or study of the mind and behavior (Merriam- Although computability is important to understand computations, the Webster, n.d.). At the present time, AI is perceived as a field that explores, notion of tractability had a greater impact on AI development. A problem develops, and accentuates the intelligent behavior of machines. Below are the is called intractable if the time required to solve instances of the problem relative developments in the field of psychology that paved the way for AI grows exponentially with the size of the instances. development (Russell & Norvig, 2022): Hermann Von Helmholtz applied scientific method of psychology to the study of human vision. His work, Handbook of Physiological Optics, has 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 2 of 4  IT2206 been described as the most important treatise on physics and physiology Noam Chomsky published a book, Syntactic Structure, which addressed of human vision. He also insisted that perception involved a form of the notion of creativity in language, and it was formal enough that it could unconscious logical interference. in principle be programmed. Wilhelm Wundt opened the first laboratory of experimental psychology, Modern linguistics and AI started to flourish about the same time Chomsky that carefully conducted controlled experiments involving perpetual or published his book. The two (2) concepts grew together, intersecting in a associative tasks for workers while introspecting on their thought hybrid field called computational linguistics and natural languages. processes. Cognitive psychology, which views the brain as an information-processing Advantages and Disadvantages of Artificial Intelligence device, can be traced back at least to the works of William James. Artificial intelligence evidently filled, and is continuously filling, gaps of human Kenneth Craik, through his work The Nature of Explanation, forcefully knowledge. In line with this, specific advantages and disadvantages can be reestablished the legitimacy of "mental" terminologies as beliefs and clearly defined as follows (Kumar, 2019): goals, arguing that they are also scientific in nature. Donald Broadbent was one of the first who modeled psychological Advantages Disadvantages phenomena as information processing through his book Perception and Reduction of human error High cost of development or Communication. Takes risks instead of humans creation Three influential papers showed how computer models could be used to High availability Unemployment Helps in repetitive jobs with high Absence of emotion address the psychology of memory, language, and logical thinking, accuracy performance Inability to think outside of the box respectively: Automated digital assistance 1. The Magic Number Seven by George Miller Faster decision making 2. Three Models of Language by Noam Chomsky Empowering new inventions and 3. The Logic Theory Machine by Allen Newell and Herbert Simon innovations Doug Engelbart, one of the pioneers of human-computer interaction (HCI), championed the idea of intelligence augmentation, which encompasses Implementation Areas of Artificial Intelligence the idea that computers should augment human abilities rather than The concept of artificial intelligence (AI) has been applied in numerous fields. automate human tasks. Below are some implementation areas of AI (Gupta & Mangla, 2020): Problem Solving – This is the first ever application area of AI research. Linguistics The aim of this particular area of research is to implement the procedures Common question: of solving problems, the way humans do, on AI systems. o How does language relate to thought? Game Playing – Early research in this area was performed using common board games such as checkers and chess. The board configurations used Understanding language requires an understanding of the subject matter and in playing these games are easily represented in computers without the context, and not just the structure. Most of the early work in knowledge requirement of complex formalisms. Developments in computer game representation were tied to language and refined by research in linguistics. playing programs are not easy, but continuous. The following are some of the significant events relative to AI (Russell & Natural Language Processing (NLP) – The main goal of NLP is to Norvig, 2022): develop software or computer systems that will understand specific human Burrhus Frederic Skinner published Verbal Behavior which is a detailed languages, wherein people may ask questions directly to the computer and comprehensive account of the behaviorist approach to language and the computer will then provide a constructive response using the same learning. language. 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 3 of 4  IT2206 Robotics – This is the science or study of technology primarily associated implementation that runs within some physical system (Russell & Norvig, with the design, fabrication, theory, and application of robots. Robots are 2022). machines that can be programmed to perform specific tasks. Speech Recognition – This implementation area of AI involves intelligent When an agent is immersed in an environment, it generates a sequence of systems that are capable of hearing and comprehending language in actions according to the percepts it receives. This sequence of action causes terms of sentences and their meaning while a human talks to them. These the environment to go through a sequence of states. If the sequence is systems can handle different accents, slang words, background noises, desirable, then the agent has performed well. This notion of desirability is and even changes in a human's voice due to cold. captured by performance measures that evaluate any given sequence of environment states. Below is a detailed example of an agent in a task Agents and Environments environment with its corresponding actuators, sensors, and performance An agent pertains to anything that can be viewed as perceiving its environment measures (Russell & Norvig, 2022). through sensors and acting upon that environment through particular actuators. Here are some examples (Russell & Norvig, 2022): Agent Performance Environment Actuators Sensors A human agent has eyes, ears, and other organs that serve as sensors, Type Measures while hands and legs act as the actuators. Safety, speed, Road condition, Steering, Cameras, comfortable trip, traffic condition, accelerator, speedometer, A robotic agent might have cameras and infrared range finders as sensors, Taxi profit, legality customer, signals, brakes GPS, engine and various motors as actuators. driver weather sensors, A software agent receives file contents, network packets, and human input accelerometer through devices that serve as sensors, and acts on the environment by writing files, sending network packets, and displaying information or The Concept of Rationality generating sounds. In artificial intelligence (AI), rationality at any given point in time may depend on the following (Russell & Norvig, 2022): The environment could be everything. In particular, it is the part that affects o The performance measure that defines the criterion of success. what an agent perceives and is also affected by the agent's actions. A sensor o The agent's prior knowledge of the environment. pertains to devices that perceive conditions within an environment, such as o The actions that the agent can perform. measure of heat, pressure, and sound. An actuator involves mechanisms that o The agent's percept sequence to date. produce motion based on a detected stimulus. Some examples of actuators are transmissions, gears, cables, and linkages. The four points stated above leads to the definition of a rational agent that is: for each possible precept sequence, a rational agent should select an action In artificial intelligence (AI), the term percept is commonly used to refer to the that is expected to maximize its performance measure, given the evidence content an agent's sensors are perceiving. An agent's percept sequence is the provided by the percept sequence and whatever built-in knowledge the agent complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived. Generally, an has (Russell & Norvig, 2022). agent's choice of action at any given instant can depend on its built-in knowledge and on the entire percept sequence observed to date, and not on References: anything it hasn't perceived. Gupta, N. & Mangla, R. (2020). Artificial intelligence basics: A self-teaching introduction. Mercury Learning and Information LLC Kumar, S. (2019, November 26). Advantages and disadvantages of artificial intelligence. Retrieved on January 24, 2022 form https://towardsdatascience.com/advantages-and-disadvantages-of-artificial-intelligence-182a5ef6588c Merriam-Webster. (n.d.). Psychology. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved on January 25, 2022 from https://www.merriam- An agent's behavior is described by the agent function that maps any given webster.com/dictionary/psychology percept sequence to an action. Internally, the agent function for an artificial Russell, S. & Norvig, P. (2022). Artificial Intelligence: A modern approach (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited Vinney. C. (2020, January 18). Understanding the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Retrieved on January 24, 2022 from agent will then be implemented by an agent program. The agent function is https://www.thoughtco.com/triarchic-theory-of-intelligence-4172497 an abstract mathematical description, while the agent program is a concrete 01 Handout 1 *Property of STI  [email protected] Page 4 of 4