Reading and Writing: Text vs Discourse - PDF

READING AND WRITING TEXT VS DISCOURSE Text ↳ is a behavioral non-interactive ​event restricted to your experience with understanding its characteristics and its meaning or information as its singular purpose. Disc...

READING AND WRITING TEXT VS DISCOURSE Text ↳ is a behavioral non-interactive ​event restricted to your experience with understanding its characteristics and its meaning or information as its singular purpose. Discourse ↳ is a ​connected speech or writing. It is anchored on the characteristic of being connected. Text as a Connected Discourse ↳ ​text becomes a discourse when it is connected. 1. Its ideas are linked logically. 2. There is logical organization and development of the theme. 3. There is use of repetition, reference, conjunctions, connectives, and other transitional devices. 2 Characteristics of a Well Written Text 1. Organization ↳the writer ensures that a text has a beginning, middle, and end. ↳you need an opening technique to make them anticipate reading. ↳a topic sentence gives your reader a parameter of what the paragraph is about. ↳the middle part of the text should have appropriate and sufficient supporting details. ↳types of clincher - summary, restatement (main point), concluding statement. 2. Coherence and Cohesion ↳if the ideas are related, it is coherent ↳cohesion is how you connect the ideas or the structure of your sentence SUMMARY: - Text is a narrated piece of information. Something you say and write - Discourse is communication/the whole message - For text to be a discourse you should understand and know its meaning - Coherence is the connection of ideas while Cohesion is how you connect the ideas - logical = clear EDITING TECHNIQUES Editing techniques in writing are very essential most especially in conveying clear and exact information. This stage of writing process involves improving a draft by a writer or editor in order to avoid errors that might affect the entire meaning of the text or might even interrupt the whole communication process. I. MECHANICS AND LANGUAGE USE Proofreading ↳is the final stage of the editing process. It focuses on surface errors like misspelling and mistakes in grammars and punctuation. A. SPELLING - ​the art of correctly assembling words from their letters 8 Reasons why spelling matters: 1. Communication - Standardizing spelling makes it a lot easier to understand texts. 2. Standards - Good spelling is considered to be a fundamental part of our language. 3. Avoid Confusion - It is difficult to understand words if it is misspelt. It can also lead to serious mistakes. 4. Future Prospects - Poor spelling can affect your future prospect or career 5. Spell Check Failures - Spell checks are not perfect. They won't pick up words that are correctly spelt, but the wrong word for the context.  6. Comprehension - It is not easy to understand something that is full of errors 7. Distraction - When the text you are reading is full of errors, it is hard to concentrate. 8. Good Impression - When you write something, it leaves an impression to those who read it. B. PUNCTUATION ​- This feature of writing gives meaning to written words. An error in punctuation can convey a completely different meaning to the one that is intended. Commonly Used Punctuation: 1. Period (.) - It ends a sentence. Use a period at the end of a complete sentence that is a statement. Example: I know him well. If the last item in the sentence is an abbreviation that ends in a period, do not follow it with another period. Incorrect: This is Alice Smith, M.D.. Correct: This is Alice Smith, M.D. Question marks and exclamation points replace and eliminate periods at the end of a sentence. Incorrect: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf?. Correct: I've never seen Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? 2. Question Mark (?) - Used at the end of a direct question The question mark is used at the end of a direct question. Example: What is she doing tonight? When a direct question occurs within a larger sentence, it takes a question mark. Example: Would they make it on time? she wondered. When the question mark in the title comes at the end of a sentence that would itself require a question mark or period, the additional question mark or period is omitted. Example: Have you read Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? 3. Exclamation Point (!) - Is a mark of terminal punctuation. Some writers use both question mark and exclamation point for exclamation questions, but only the exclamation is necessary. Incorrect: What in the world are you doing up there?! Correct: What in the world are you doing up there! When a quotation ends with an exclamation point, a comma that would ordinarily be placed inside the closing quotation mark is omitted. Incorrect: “Get out!,” Marcus yelled. Correct: “Get out,” Marcus said. Correct: “Get out!” Marcus yelled. 4. Comma (,) - The presence or absence of a comma can change the meaning of a sentence. The comma separates grammatical components of the sentence. Example: Jenny bought some fruits, chicken, and pasta for dinner. 5. Colon (:) - Is used to introduce a list of items. Example: The bookstore specializes in three subjects: art, architecture, and graphic design. Remember: do not, however, use a colon when the listed items are incorporated into the flow of the sentence. Incorrect: The bookstore specializes in: art, architecture, and graphic design. Correct: The bookstore specializes in art, architecture, and graphic design.  The colon can be used to emphasize a phrase or single word at the end of a sentence. Example: After three weeks of deliberation, the jury finally reached a verdict: guilty. The colon is used to separate two independent clauses when the second explains or illustrates the first. In such usage, the colon functions in much the same way as the semicolon. As with the semicolon, do not capitalize the first word after the colon unless the word is ordinarily capitalized. Example: I have very little time to learn the language: my new job starts in five weeks. 6. Semicolon (;) - Most commonly, the semicolon is used between two independent clauses (i.e., clauses that could stand alone as separate sentences) when a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or,yet, so) is omitted. Example: The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus lunch; the underclassmen must remain on campus. The example above could be recast with the conjunction but, in which case a comma, rather than a semicolon, would be required. Example: The upperclassmen are permitted off-campus lunch, but the underclassmen must remain on campus. The semicolon is also used between two independent clauses linked by a transitional expression (e.g., accordingly, consequently, for example, nevertheless, so, thus). Example: Heavy snow continues to fall at the airport; consequently, all flights have been grounded. C. GRAMMAR ​- In writing, grammar makes the content more readable, understandable and even engaging. 2 Basic Parts of Grammar: 1. Subject-verb agreement - A subject in a sentence should always be paired with the appropriate forms of the verb. Examples: He eats lunch in the cafeteria. 2. Pronoun-antecedent - Pronouns are dependent on the antecedent they take place. Example: Ana was seen in school before she got lost. Here are 20 rules and tips to help avoid mistakes in English grammar: 1. A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period/full stop, a question mark or an exclamation mark. see Punctuation. 2. The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject-Verb-Object. (Negative and question sentences may have a different order.) 3. Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional. Note that an imperative sentence may have a verb only, but the subject is understood. 4. The subject and verb must agree in number, that is a singular subject needs a singular verb and a plural subject needs a plural verb. 5. When two singular subjects are connected by or, use a singular verb. The same is true for either/or and neither/nor. 6. Adjectives usually come before a noun (except when a verb separates the adjective from the noun). 7. When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion-adjective + fact-adjective + noun. (There are some additional rules for the order of fact adjectives.)  8. Treat collective nouns (eg committee, company, board of directors) as singular OR plural. In Bitishs English (BrE) a collective noun is usually treated as plural, needing a plural verb and pronoun. In American English (AmE) a collective noun is often treated as singular, needing a singular verb and pronoun. 9. The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings. 10. The words your and you're are two different words with different meanings. 11. The words there, their and they're are three different words with different meanings. 12. The contraction he's can mean he is OR he has. Similarly, she can mean she is OR she has, and it can mean it is OR it has, and John's can mean John is OR John has. 13. The contraction he'd can mean he had OR he would. Similarly, they'd can mean they had OR they would. 14. Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter. A proper noun is a "name" of something, for example Josef, Mary, Russia, China, British Broadcasting Corporation, English. 15. Spell proper adjectives with an initial capital letter. Proper adjectives are made from proper nouns, for example Germany → German, Orwell → Orwellian, Machiavelli → Machiavellian. 16. Use the indefinite article a/an for countable nouns in general. Use the definite article for specific countable nouns and all uncountable nouns. 17. Use the indefinite article a with words beginning with a consonant sound. Use the indefinite article and with words beginning with a vowel sound. see When to Say a or an 18. Use many or few with countable nouns. Use much/a lot or little for uncountable nouns. see Quantifiers 19. To show possession (who is the owner of something) use an apostrophe + s for singular owners, and s + apostrophe for plural owners. 20. In general, use the active voice (Cats eat fish) in preference to the passive voice (Fish are eaten by cats). SUMMARY: - There is a topic sentence so that we can know if the paragraph is the right fit for you and if the text is worthy to be read and worthy of your time. - There are topic sentences at the end because authors like to add effect - Editing is at the end of the process because if you edit and write at the same time, you’re going to disrupt and destroy your ideas. SELECTING AND ORGANIZING INFORMATION Brainstorming ↳ Is an informal way of generating topics to write about, or points to make about your topic. Types of Brainstorming: 1. Listing - It means listing possible topics and then sublists of things you could say about each topic. 2. Graphic Organizers - They present concepts in a clearer and more systematic manner, thereby making you and your readers see better at one glance the relationships between different ideas in a text. The following are kinds of graphic organizers: a. Flowchart or sequence chart - shows a series of steps or events in the order in which they take place. (key of events, procedures, timelines, etc.)  b. Fishbone Diagram - it resembles the skeleton of a fish. It allows you to list down many aspects of cause and effect. This is used for more complex topics which have more details to be enumerated. c. Cluster Graphic Organizer - non-linear chart that can help synthesize and organize data about multiple traits, facts, or characteristics of a single topic. d. Venn Diagram - diagram that uses circles to represent sets and their relationships. It is most often used to show comparisons and contrasts. Outlining ↳ is a method of organizing your thoughts by allowing you to see the order of your ideas or the flow of your thoughts. Types of Outlines: 1. Topic Outline - the headings are given in single words or brief phrases 2. Sentence Outline - all the headings are expressed in complete sentences Rules for Outline Mechanics 1. Subdivide topics by a system of numbers and letters, followed by a period. 2. Each heading and subheading must have at least two parts. 3. Headings for parts of the paper, such as Introduction and Conclusion, should not be used. Be consistent. Do not mix up the two types of outlines. Use either the sentence or topic outline. SUMMARY: - Brainstorming is freewrite organizing. We do it in groups, we get a topic, we let it all out, and we talk in the form of a notebook. - We outline because it gives us a structure and it gives us (purpose) an assessment. - We outline to see the points and if it relates. NARRATION AND DESCRIPTION Narration ↳​ is a pattern development in writing that is used to tell a story or to focus on a set of related events. ↳​ usually answers the questions who, what, when, where, why, and how. The integration of these details in a story is called the plot. Conventionally, it follows this order: 1. First, the characters, and the situation or setting. 2. Second, something happens to start the action and provide a basis for the conflict or problem in the story. 3. Third, conflict is developed by a series of actions or events that complicate the story. 4. Fourth, the final action or event which is of greatest interest to your readers because it brings your story to a point where conflicts have to be settled and resolutions are made. 5. Fifth is the theme which readers need to infer so as to determine what insight or message that the story has. A plot diagram or also called as Freytag’s pyramid, developed by Gustav Freytag a German novelist and playwright, is a guide that we can use to organize the ideas of the plot. Structure of a Narrative Paragraph: a. Topic Sentence – opening sentence that states the main idea of the paragraph b. Order of Events: ​Chronological Order – narrates the events of story from beginning to end ​Building Order - Moves from one point, event, or reason to the next. You may start with the most important idea and show how it is related to the others. ​Transition between Events – Keeps readers on track with words that lead them through your narration and connect your ideas. Description ↳​ allows you to paint a picture on the page with words, so the readers can experience it with you. ↳​ mode of writing that presents facts, images, and impressions of people, things and events. It records what we see, hear, feel, taste, touch, and smell (sensory language). Descriptive can be objective and subjective to give you a wide choice of tone, diction and attitude. a. Objective – height, weight coloring b. Subjective – above details but also stresses feelings, personality and habits. Creating a dominant impression is essential in descriptive paragraphs. The dominant impression is the main point or statement part of a topic sentence in a description. The writer must control the dominant impression, choosing details to make a point. Thoughts and feelings can add to the dominant impression. SUMMARY: - Narrative writing are stories that are engaging and entertaining - Descriptive writing is uses the 5 senses and freezes a moment and describes it - 2 types of descriptive writing: objective and subjective - The similarities of the two is that it both tackles emotion DEFINITION AND EXEMPLIFICATION Definition ↳​ is a statement of the meaning of a word or word group or a sign or symbol ↳​ three ways to define a term is through a single-sentence definition by: synonym, class, and negation 1. Single-sentence definition by Synonym  ↳​ one of the most understood and useful method of explaining the word or phrase by using other words or phrases which have the same, or nearly the same meaning. The synonym should be an easier or more familiar term than the word being defined. Example: “A charlatan is a quack, an impostor, a pretender, a fraud.” Limitations 1​: Synonyms are useful in explaining the meaning of a word or phrase only when they are more familiar to the reader than the term being defined. Limitations 2​: It is very rare to find two English words which have exactly the same meaning, particularly when the connotation of words are taken into account. Connotation - are the associated, or secondary, meaning of words. Very often, words that have essentially the same meaning have different connotations. 2. Single-sentence definition by Class ↳​ When defining by class, you place the word to be defined in a group to which it belongs. Example: A charlatan is a person who makes false claims. Sinigang is a Filipino dish. 3. Single-sentence definition by Negation ↳​ Definition by negation means the writer defines a word by saying what it is not, then saying what it is. Example: Psychologists are not trained in general medical principles, but they are trained in administering and interpreting psychological tests. Types of Definition in Technical Writing: 1. Parenthetical Definition ↳​ Parenthetical definitions are words that quickly explain a term and are included within the same sentence as the word being defined. These informal definitions can be a synonym or a short phrase. The definition will be placed in parentheses immediately following the word being defined. ↳​ Parenthetical definitions are used to explain words that need clarification but are not the main focus of the document. Example: Our company should invest in creating sinistral (left-handed) office supplies to meet the growing market demand.' 2. Sentence Definition ↳​ The definition provided needs to be more extensive. Sentence definitions can provide the additional information needed to help increase comprehension. ↳​ Sentence definitions are an explanation of a word using one sentence. Sentence definitions includes: the word being defined, the class to which the word belongs, the feature that distinguish the term from other words Example: The heart is an organ that pumps blood through the body. A pig is an animal that rolls in the mud. 3. Extended Definition ↳ when the term is so important to the document or so complex in its meaning that an entire paragraph or more is needed to help explain the term. ↳ the use of a paragraph or more to expand on a word that may be difficult to comprehend. An extended definition almost always starts with a sentence definition, but then expands on the word by providing additional sentences about one or more of the following: - The function of the term - The location of the term - The physical traits of the term - The causes and effects of the term Exemplification ↳ writing uses specific, vivid examples for the purpose of adding more information to explain, persuade, define, or illustrate a general idea. ↳ exemplification provides solid support and strong evidence to prove the writer’s main statement. ↳ by supplying specific examples, the writer adds additional who, what, when, where, why, and how information to elaborate on the main idea of a paragraph or essay. 2 Types of examples one can use in a paragraph: 1. Single-extended Example ↳ A single extended example provides details about a person, place, or thing that illustrates something more general. - If the one example is particularly vivid and compelling, it can sometimes be enough to support its main idea. - A single example may also be a narrative, a story that illustrates the topic sentence. 2. Multiple Examples ↳ It uses several examples to support the main idea. ↳ Multiple examples are better suited for simpler concepts due to the length of each example being shorter than that of the single extended example. SUMMARY: - Definition is sending a clear message to a reader while using an extended meaning and filling gaps with informations the reader don’t know - Definition gives the reader a eureka moment and it eradicates confusion - Exemplification is aimed to make the readers agree with you - Exemplification eradicates stereotypes. It is also preferred because it can use any kind of examples. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST PARAGRAPHS Making Comparisons and Contrasts ↳ A comparison shows how people or things are similar. A contrast shows how they are different. In both, you must identify topics (e.g. Davao and Tokyo) and their points of comparison (e.g. size, location, weather) that can be compared or contrasted. Definition of a Compare and Contrast Paragraph ↳ In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about both of these. An example of this can be a paragraph talking about Davao and Tokyo and how they are both similar and different. The words below can help in the composition of your compare and contrast paragraph. Process of Writing a Compare and Contrast Paragraph 1. Choose Your Subjec​t - Remember that your two subjects must be different, but still in the same ballpark, to create a meaningful compare-and-contrast paragraph. 2. Brainstorm Similarities and Differences​ - Make two lists: one list of similarities, and another of differences. Remember to keep characteristics of the different subjects somewhat parallel. This will make it easier to structure a good argument. 3. Hone Your Main Argument - ​A good compare-and-contrast paragraph goes beyond a simple listing of similarities and differences to make a meaningful statement about a larger topic. What strikes you as significant? What do these similarities and differences say about the topic? That will be your main argument. 4. Decide on Your Organizational Structure - ​There are many possibilities for structuring a compare-and-contrast essay. You could write about one subject in detail, and then switch to the other or focus on the similar and contrasting details of both subjects. 5. Write an Outline ​- Craft an outline that fits the structure you have chosen. Traditionally, a paragraph consists of a topic sentence, a body, and a conclusion. Make sure to give balance between the two subjects. 6. Fill in Supporting Evidence ​- As you begin to write your paragraph, back up your assertions with evidence from research, reading, or personal experience. With any information that you include, be sure to explain why it matters in the context of your larger argument. 7. Craft Your Essay with Strong Transitional Words ​- Transitional words give your paragraph a nice flow from one statement to the next. When comparing, use words like “both,” “likewise” and “similarly.” Words such as “nonetheless,” “on the other hand,” and “whereas” are ideal for forming a contrast. 8. Proofread and Revise Carefully - ​Once you have finished, read your composition several times to check spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Make use of spell check and grammar check tools in your word processing program. Organize your Paragraph Block Method Definition​: It is a presentation of all facts and supporting details about one subject followed by the facts and supporting details about the second subject. Advantages​: It presents the whole picture of the two sides and is covering a general issue. It also does not appear as monotonous. Disadvantages:​ It tends to become a summary if the writer is not careful. The reader must remember a lot too. The composition is not always as clearly organized. Example​: People should own boxers and briefs. It is important to note though that both has pros and cons when wearing them. When wearing boxers under our pants, the boxers bunch up in different places, forming little hills out of the pants. They come up high on the waist, so people can see them above the pants unless the shirt is tucked in. However, they can be worn without any clothes over them without any embarrassment. When worn like this, they are very comfortable. Briefs do not bunch up under pants, leaving the pants smooth. Usually they do not come up high on the waist, so people cannot see them above the pants. They cannot be worn without clothes on top without violating the law. They are very comfortable when worn under pants. Whether we use boxers or briefs as our underpants, for many of us it is a matter of preference. Point by Point Method Definition​: It is a comparison of one point of a subject with a point of the other subject. Advantages​: It keeps each set of points for discussion close together. The reader does not have to remember as much information as well. It keeps the paper clearly organized and avoids summary. Disadvantages:​ It can appear mechanical and monotonous. It also does not provide a unified discussion of the two sides. Example​: People should own boxers and briefs. It is important to note though that both has pros and cons when wearing them. When wearing boxers under our pants, the boxers bunch up in different places, forming little hills out of the pants. When wearing briefs under the pants, they do not bunch up, leaving the pants smooth. Boxers come up high on the waist, so people can see them above the pants unless the shirt is tucked in, but briefs do not come up high on the waist, so no one can see them above the pants. However, boxers can be worn without any clothes on top, but this cannot be done with briefs. Wearing boxers without any pants on is very comfortable. Briefs are very comfortable with pants on. Because of the advantages and disadvantages of each, people should own both boxers and underwear. clothes on top, but this cannot be done with underwear. Wearing boxers without any pants on is very comfortable. Underwear is very comfortable with pants on. Because of the advantages and disadvantages of each, people should own both boxers and underwear. Reminder:​ This type of writing can be really confusing, as balancing between comparing and contrasting can be rather difficult. Remember, this is not a one-way street to perfection. Like any type of writing, it is an iterative process. With practice and experience, this skill can be mastered.  CAUSE AND EFFECT ↳ ​The ability to think through causes and effects is essential to many college courses, jobs, and everyday situations.. On a daily basis, we look into ​reasons for​ or ​cause of​ certain events. In writing about cause and effect, it is important to understand that most events worth examining have complex, not simple, causes and effects i.e. there may be several causes and several effects. That is why writing about causes and effects require critical thinking. Cause and Effect: Critical Thinking 1. Do not oversimplify. A complex problem like addiction usually doesn‘t have only ONE cause. You have to collect evidence that would support your ideas. 2. Do not confuse time order with causation. Avoid mistaking coincidence for causes. If your eye waters after the doorbell rings, do not assume that the doorbell made your eyes water. Just because one event follows another does not prove a cause and effect relationship. 3. Do not confuse causes and effects. This might sound obvious but determining what are causes and what are effects can sometimes be tricky. Transitional Words for Cause and Effect PROBLEM AND SOLUTION ↳ ​A problem – solution paragraph divides information into two main sections: one that describes a problem and one that describes a solution. A problem can be defined as some tension, gap, or even a goal – something unknown, unresolved or something that causes confusion. On the other hand a solution is an idea or a course of action to resolve the problem or to take steps towards its resolution. ​↳ This type of writing is typically used to convince readers to support a certain course of action. The problem – solution pattern allows the reader to change his or her opinion, behavior, or attitude by establishing that a problem exists and there are solutions to this problem. 1. Problem - the writer identifies the different aspects of the problem and provides evidence through examples, facts, statistics, etc to support your claim. 2. Solution - the writer identifies potential solutions and supports the effectiveness of such solutions over others. The solutions could also be supported by examples, facts, statistics, etc.  In writing problem–solution paragraphs, there can be one main problem and several solutions or several problems and several solutions. Organizing a Problem Solution Paragraph 1. First, identify the problem in a nutshell. Explain why this is a problem and mention who should be concerned about it. 2. Second, explain the problem clearly and specifically. Demonstrate that the problem is not just a personal complaint but a genuine problem that affects many people. 3. Third, offer a concrete solution to the problem and explain why this is the best one available. You may want to point out why other possible solutions are not as great as your proposed solution. If your solution calls for a series of steps or actions to be followed, present these steps in logical order. 4. Finally, conclude your paragraph by reemphasizing the importance of the problem and the value of your solution. PERSUASIVE ↳ ​A Persuasive Essay is one in which you use logic and arguments to convince readers of your point of view. For that, you need to provide solid evidence for arguments, such as research, stating facts, examples, quotes from experts, and logical reasons. ↳ ​The main goal of this type of writing is to persuade your audience that your view is among the most compelling opinions on the topic. You should attempt to persuade even those who start out strongly disagreeing with you. To do that, you need to show that you’re very well-informed about your topic. A Persuasive Essay does have certain baseline requirements: 1. A clear thesis or controlling idea that establishes and sustains your focus. 2. An opening paragraph that introduces the thesis. 3. Body paragraphs that use specific research evidence to illustrate your informative or argumentative points. 4. Smooth transitions that connect the ideas of adjoining paragraphs in specific, interesting ways. 5. Use of counterarguments to summarize and refute opposing positions. 6. A conclusion that emphasizes your central idea without being repetitive. After following the pre-writing process, draft your essay following these suggestions: 1. The introductory paragraph should have a strong “hook” that grabs the reader’s attention. Open with an unusual fact or statistic, a question or quotation, or an emphatic statement. 2. The thesis statement should leave no doubts about the writer’s position. 3. Each body paragraph should cover a separate point, and the sentences of each paragraph should offer strong evidence in the form of facts, statistics, quotes from experts, and real-life examples. 4. Define terms and give background information.The concluding paragraph should summarize the most important evidence and encourage the reader to adopt the position or take action. The closing sentence can be a dramatic plea, a prediction that implies urgent action is needed, a question that provokes readers to think seriously about the issue, or a recommendation that gives readers specific ideas on what they can do. During the editing, proofreading, and revising stage of your writing, make sure your essay perform several of the following tasks that overlap and merge smoothly with each other: 1. Define your key terms or ideas. 2. Describe and analyze specific examples of your topic. 3. Summarize and evaluate contrasting opinions on your topic. 4. Compare and contrast your examples and their relation to your thesis. 5. Connect your examples explicitly to your central idea and to each other. 6. Make sure you cite all information that comes from your sources.  SUMMARY: - ​The thesis statement is the most important part of an essay. - Thesis statement - topic, position and then 3 reasons - Persuading means to try to get somebody to do something. - Affected tool in persuasion are logic, credibility, emotions CRITICAL READING AND CLAIMS Two Kinds of Information: 1. Explicit​ ​Information​ is the information stated in the text. Readers can see the piece of information stated in the given passage. 2. Implicit​ ​information​ is the information not directly presented in the text. As readers, we need to read between the lines to understand the details that the writer is trying to tell us. Claims ↳​A claim is a statement through which an author conveys or defends an idea. ↳​Claims can be categorized into five types, though there will obviously be instances of overlap and confusion. Analyzing the nature of the claim helps both with understanding its implications and the best approach to refute it. Types of Claims: 1. Claims of Fact​ - center on debates about subjects we believe to be objectively true or untrue. These types of claims should be empirically disputable. Examples: The ozone layer is becoming depleted. Global warming is a human-caused phenomenon. The coronavirus COVID-19 pandemic is the defining global health crisis of our time. But the pandemic is much more than a health crisis, it's also an unprecedented socio-economic crisis. The World Bank projects a US$110 billion decline in remittances this year, which could mean 800 million people will not be able to meet their basic needs. 2. Claims of Value​ - evaluate the inherent goodness or morality of an event and the value systems by which we should make decisions. Examples: Euthanasia is an affront in God. The dancing that occurs in high school leads to immoral behavior. Insurance fraud, without saying, is one of the most rampant crimes worldwide. Where there is big money, chances are, abuse is just around the corner. Corruption is an abominable malaise in our society, but coupling this with an inefficient system, one that is under the control of the state at that, is doubly lethal to a nation that has over 30 million needy people who rely on government funds for their health needs. 3. Claims of Policy​ - address the course of action we should take, the policies we should adopt, and the way that we attempt to solve problems. Examples: Social Security should be distributed on the basis of need rather than as an entitlement. Every person in the Philippines should have access to health care. We must rebuild trust and cooperation, within and among nations, and between people and their governments. We must also consider ways to prevent a similar pandemic recurring. A comprehensive and non-partisan systems review of PhilHealth is needed to ensure that taxpayers’ money is spent wisely, and that it is shielded from political maneuverings.  BUSINESS AND PROFESSIONAL CORRESPONDENCE Resume ↳​ One of the most important requirements for applying for a job is a resume. ↳ ​How well you’ve written and arranged your resume will determine whether or not you’ll get the job you want. ↳ I​mportant elements that a resume must demonstrate: You are employable. You meet the job and the institution or organization’s requirements. You have the qualifications and right skills for the job. You have the right level of professionalism for the job. Traditionally, the ideal resume contains the following information about you: 1. contact details 2. opening statement 3. key skills 4. technical skills 5. personal attributes 6. career overview 7. educational qualifications 8. employment and volunteering history 9. references The following lists what a well-written cover letter can accomplish: to introduce yourself to an employer and convey your interest in the organization to match your skills and experiences with the requirements of the vacant position to demonstrate your writing skills and display your personality to communicate your value to an employer to entice the employer to read your resume to get invited for an interview Business Correspondence ↳​ form of professional correspondence that is concerned in business deals using an exchange of numerous types and forms of business letters. ↳​They use the simplest way of expressing i.e., written correspondence. A written correspondence in the business and professional world is usually a business letter. Styles when formatting your business letter: 1. Full-block Style 2. Modified Block Style 3. Semi-block Style These tips are true regardless of the correspondence you are writing: Proofread everything, no matter how short. Use a professional email address. Make certain that attachments have a relevant title. Be sure to have an appropriate greeting and closing in emails. Include a subject line in emails. Always follow through on what you said you would do. When deciding the best way to contact someone, approach with formality. Email and phone are both good ways to start, but don’t text, instant message, or friend someone you don’t know. Use titles (Mr., Ms., or Dr.) and avoid slang or abbreviations. If you have a mutual connection, ask to be introduced. Professional Correspondence ↳ Is a communication intended for career and professional advancement ↳ Unlike personal correspondence, professional correspondence is formal and impersonal i.e. meaning is conveyed not just from person to person but from person to institution. ↳ Its goal is to create and leave a good impression on potential employers as you apply for a job or on universities and colleges as you apply to the college of your choice. Resume ↳ An outline or summary of your background and your qualifications for the job you want. ↳ Demonstrates that you: Are employable Meet the job and the organization and/or company’s requirements Have the right qualifications and education Have the suitable experience and skills Have the surpassing level of professionalism for the job Parts of a Resume Basic Information ↳ Write your name and the college you have obtained. You may include your college graduation photo or your photo wearing a formal and dignified attire. ↳ Enclose your active contact number and your email address. Include your present and/or city address, this will give a hint to your prospective employer if you are near or far from the workplace. Career Objective ↳ An objective statement clearly states the purpose of your resume. Use it to let an employer know your specific job or career goal. Tailor your objective to the type of job to which you’re applying. If you decide not to include it in your resume, be sure to state an objective in your cover letter. Summary Statement ↳ Highlights your qualifications. This will give them a snapshot of your work experiences, achievements, and skills. To be effective, it should be brief (4-5 lines of text). It should also be written for the position you are applying for. Use keywords and resume verbs when creating your summary statement. Educational Background ↳ Contains the school’s name and address, the years you have spent in a particular level, and the degree you have obtained in college. Skills ↳ Contains your skills and qualifications related to the job you’re applying for. You can be creative in presenting your skills and qualifications like displaying it through a table and graph. Work Experience ↳ Specifies your previous workplace and the months and/or years you have spent working for that job. Include brief job descriptions and work experiences. Training and Seminars ↳ Contains the title of the seminar or training you have attended and/or organized, include the venue of the event, the dates the event was held and your role during that particular activity. Character Reference ↳ Enlists people who can attest your competence and qualifications. These people are witnesses of your capabilities, with this they can be interviewed by your prospective employer to provide additional recommendations to your employer. ↳ These people should not be relatives and friends. They are persons with Higher Professional Attainment and Skills. Make sure to ask their permission before enlisting their names. Application Letter ↳ Or a cover letter Is a document that accompanies your resume. ↳ Its goal is to highlight your qualifications as it summarizes the contents of your resume and to persuade your potential employer to grant you an interview. Parts of a Cover Letter Date ↳ When the letter is written and follows the month-day-year format Inside Address ↳ Contains the name, job title or designation, and address of the recipient. Salutation ↳ Greetings used in the letter ↳ Dear + Name of Recipient + Colon ↳ If you know neither the name nor the gender of your recipient, use Dear Madam/Sir. Body ↳ 1st Paragraph: Make a good start by expressing your interest for the job. ↳ 2nd Paragraph: Explains your qualifications and credentials (highlights) ↳ 3rd Paragraph: Briefly summarize your experiences and strengths ↳ 4th Paragraph: Explain why hiring you will benefit the employer/company ↳ 5th Paragraph:Show an impression that you are available anytime. Be grateful and respectful. Complimentary Close ↳ Shows regard, respect, and appreciation of the letter writer to the recipient. ↳ Examples are: Very truly yours, Sincerely yours, and Respectfully your Name and Signature ↳ Authenticates the letter Business Correspondence ↳ A written document that is used to transact business. ↳ Aims to serve as a record and to secure action from the recipient or reader. ↳ Has a goal to be able to express the writer’s objective clearly. Business Letters ↳ Are different from the personal letters because the tone, style, and format of a business letter reflect a professional business image. ↳ The goal of most business letters is to inform (e.g routine letters, good news messages, thank you letters, etc.) or to persuade (sales letters, donation letters, collection and claims, etc.) Parts of Business Letters Heading or Letterhead (The Return Address) ↳ Two types: Conventional and Modern ↳ Conventional: (Personal) and Modern (As an Institution) Date ↳ Formats: September 1, 2019 (American English Style 1 September 2019 (British English Style)= Inside Address and Salutation Body ↳ 1st Paragraph: Introduction and reason for writing ↳ Following Paragraphs: Explain your reason for writing in more detail, provide background information, etc. ↳ Last Paragraph: Summarize your reason for writing again and make clear what you want the recipient to do. Contemporary Close & Name and Signature Formats of a Letter Memos ↳ Short for Memorandum, is a form of interoffice communication ↳ Allow you to coordinate with people within an organization-especially those who do not have access to e-mail. Advantages of Memos Quick Inexpensive Convenient A written record Emails ↳ Or Electrical Mail is a form of written communication just like memos and letters but sent via the internet. ↳ an be for interoffice communication and communication outside the organization like letters. Unsuitable Email Messages Negative or emotionally significant messages ↳ Reprimands, condolences, and other bad news Time sensitive messages ↳ messages that are urgent or require a quick response Long and/or complicated messages ↳ Lengthy messages should be sent as attachments Confidential messages ↳ E-mails can be intercepted and can be retrieved even if they are deleted. They can also be easily forwarded, printed, and distributed without the sender’s knowledge. Messages that may be misinterpreted ↳ tone of voice and body language are absent in emails so it can be easy to misinterpret a message sent via email  ASSERTION AND ITS CLASSIFICATION Assertions ↳ ​are declarative sentences that claim something is true about something else. ↳ I​t is a sentence that is either true or false. It is stated with force so when someone makes an assertion, they’re not just trying out an idea – they really mean it. The Four Verification Tactics: 1. Fact (selective truth) ↳ ​This is a statement that can be proven objectively by direct experience, testimonies of witnesses, verified observations, or the results of research. Because statements of fact can be double-checked for accuracy, there is general agreement about the truth they posit. Example: The sampaguita's roots are used for medicinal purposes, such as an anesthetic and a sedative. The statement is a fact because i​ t can be directly verified by experience or reliable research reports. Roses grow best in soil made of 3⁄4 clay and 1⁄4 sand and loam. It is a statement of fact because it can be directly proven by e​ xperience through​ experiment or actual planting a rose. 2. Convention (universal truth) ↳​ A convention is a way in which something is done, similar to traditions and norms. Conventions depend on historical precedent, laws, rules, usage, and customs. Thus, their truthfulness is verified by how commonly held definitions and beliefs are interpreted. Something to note about conventions is that they may sound factual due to their being derived from customs, but because they are socially accepted ways of doing things, they cannot be verified objectively by measurements. Example: The sampaguita belongs to the genus Jasminum of the family Oleaceae. This statement is a c​ onvention​ because it is ​based on a classification system made up by scientists and is acceptable to the scientific community. There are 366 days in a leap year. It is a statement of c​ onvention​ because the calendar is an ​agreed​ system of organizing days for social, religious or administrative purposes. Import liberalization means allowing foreign goods to enter the Philippine market and compete with the domestic products. It is a statement of c​ onvention​ because the law is a system agreed by a political body. 3. Opinion (no truth yet) ↳ ​Opinions are based on judgement of facts, but are difficult to objectively verify because of the uncertainty of producing satisfactory proofs of soundness. Opinions result from ambiguities; the more ambiguous a statement, the more difficult it is to verify. Thus, they are open to disputes.  Example: The popularity of sampaguita flowers is most evident in places of worship. The above statement is an ​opinion​ because it is b ​ ased on an observation that needs to be proven by studies and repeated observation​; there are too many factors involved that makes explicit judgment difficult. The export of cut roses can be one of the most lucrative businesses in the Philippines. The above statement is an ​opinion​ because it is b ​ ased on an observation about trading of cut roses in the Philippines. 4. Preference (personal truth) ↳ ​Preferences are based on personal choice; therefore, they are subjective and cannot be objectively proven or logically attacked. This statement goes to the heart of our values and beliefs. No proof is possible. No disputing or debating of your preferences. Example: Sampaguitas are the most beautiful and most fragrant of all flowers. This statement is a preference because​ it says a lot about the type of flower that the writer likes,​ instead of objectively comparing the qualities of sampaguitas to that of other flowers. 3 Sub-Classification of Preference: 1. Statement of taste – basically an “I like it or I don’t like it” statement 2. Ethical statement – “It is good or It is bad”. 3. Statement of obligation – You should do it.” or You should not do it.” ARTICLE REVIEW ↳ It is basically a criticism of somebody’s written work. ↳ The purpose of an article review is generally to let readers know what the work is about and what its merits are so that readers can decide whether they want to read the work. ↳ Because the readers of a review probably have not read the work under discussion, you must describe the work and evaluate it What is the content of the review? 1. Identify the work and the author 2. Include a summary of the work 3. Include an evaluation A review may include some or all of the following: An abstract, summary, or synopsis to summarize the essential contents and main ideas. A statement or thorough discussion of the author’s thesis (main underlying idea), purpose, and methods of development. A brief biographical sketch of the author’s intellectual life, linking the work under discussion to the author’s other works. A discussion of the relationship between the work being reviewed and other works in the field. Your evaluation of the work, clearly presented and well-supported Selected short quotations from the work that are representative of the theme, tone, and style. How do you write an article review? 1. Read the Material ↳ the material that you will review or critique would require you to read actively, intelligently, and critically. You have to go beyond the content of the material. 2. Write the Review of Critique Paper ↳ your paper should give an information analysis of the material. It should be more than just a summary of the article. ↳ Be mindful of the structures of your review. Like all essays, an article critique has an introduction, body, and conclusion. Introduction Include one or more general statements that give a quick indication of the work’s contents and your reaction to it. Include your thesis statement - your main argument which is the focus of the review. Is the article worthwhile for others to read? Why or why not? Body The number of body paragraphs varies according to the nature of the assignment and the extent of what you have to say. In general, there will be at least one paragraph of summary and at least one paragraph of evaluation. ○ In your summary paragraph, include all the significant points of the work, including the points the author emphasizes. ○ Explain the purposes of the work and, if appropriate, the author’s background and methodology (often found in the preface, foreword, or introduction) ○ Present your critical evaluation, discussing both positive and negative features as appropriate. Support all your judgements with evidence from the work, paraphrasing and quoting excerpts. Conclusion Give an overall evaluation as the conclusion of what you have said so far. In a review, make a recommendation about the type of reader likely to enjoy or benefit from the work. In a critique, include an indication of the work’s merit in the field. Use the APA style for yout in-text citations and bibliography. How do you format an article review? ↳ Usually, an article review includes the following categories: 1. Full Bibliographic Reference 2. Introduction: Objectives, Article Domain, Audience, Journal and Conceptual/Empirical Classifications 3. Brief Summary 4. Results 5. Contributions 6. Foundation 7. Synthesis with Concepts 8. Analysis and Additional Analyses 9. General Critique 10. Further critique of Conceptual Article or an Empirical Article 11. Issues (as listed by author) 12. Issues (as per your opinion) 13. Relevance or Impact 14. Questions 15. Annotated Bibliography Helpful tips for you article review Reading an article, do research on topic Check for unknown terms and definitions that are unclear Research on the author’s background, educations, and credibility Read an article more than once where you first check for summary, then read it as a critical expert. Highlight important sentences, arguments, thesis statement(s) Create an outline Do not directly quote from a reviewed source, but include quotes sparingly if absolutely necessary. Always use third person when stating an opinion. Make a list of what listed arguments provided by the author lack and mention how they could be improved. Mention if your expectations are met Make proposals for future research in the conclusion paragraph.