Introduction to Philosophy PDF

Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer correct answer fundamental LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION...

Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer correct answer fundamental LECTURE 1: INTRODUCTION only. issues. - Everyone will - It requires eventually agree complex TOPIC OVERVIEW with the answer thinking. A. INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY a. What is Philosophy? FUNDAMENTAL QUESTION b. Factual vs Philosophical ➔ Basic questions that addresses Questions a foundational or overarching c. Fundamental Question d. Wisdom issue or problem. B. SOCRATES ➔ A basic question, yet they are a. Socratic Problem hard to answer. b. Socratic Method C. CLASSIFYING PHILOSOPHIES ➔ It deals with a broad concept, a. Thematic Types (Branches of theory or principle from where Philosophy) other topics in a specific b. Philosophical Methods discipline underlie. Ex. What is Justice? A INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY What is Art? PHILOSOPHY ➔ A set of beliefs or ideas held by A1 Philosophy begins with Wonder an individual or a group of Philosophy bases on children. individuals regardless of the Children has so many specific nature of their beliefs. questions. So, if you want to be ➔ It is also a systematic study. good in Philosophy, you need to ➔ To Philosophize, ask have a Childlike Wonder. Philosophical Questions. ➔ For Pythagoras, Philosophy is the love of wisdom. Philosophy A2 Wisdom came from the words “Philo (Love)” and “Sophia (Wisdom)”. What does Wisdom consists of? ➔ Wisdom consists in knowing FACTUAL PHILOSOPHICAL what one knows and one does QUESTION QUESTION not know. - Via Negativa: By way of - It requires - Its practical, but Negation. You do not fact-based not that answers. practical. know what you like, but - It has one - It addresses you know what you do not like. PAGE 1 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer ➔ To Philosophize is to critically - In here, Socrates was able examine beliefs and assess to expose the Sophist’s whether they are justified or ignorance. not. - Sophists: They are - Fallacy: Error in self-proclaimed wise reasoning. men. - Critically Examine - Hubris: Excessive pride Beliefs: You are trying to - Socrates was accused of find out whether beliefs 2 crimes: Corruption of are supported or not. You Youth and Impiety are looking for (Worship of the False justifications. Gods) with the Ex. punishment of death by Superstitions: Knocking on drinking Hemlock. wood. This is also known as Fallicious Beliefs. B1 Socratic Method B SOCRATES SOCRATIC METHOD (Western Philosophy) ➔ A question and answer method. SOCRATIC PROBLEM NEGATIVE ASPECT POSITIVE ASPECT ➔ Plato wrote his books in Dialogue Form. Elenchos/Elenchi Maieutics or ➔ Socrates was proclaimed as the or Ignorance Midwifery/ “Wisest Person” in Athens by Midwife, giving the Oracle of Delphi. birth to your own ideas. - Oracle of Delphi: This is the temple of Apollo (Sun God/The God of Truth). DIALECTICAL MOVEMENT OF IDEAS People go here to seek (By G.W.F Hegel) guidance. ➔ The progression or development of ideas into Socrates only knew that he making a Thesis, or Anti-thesis, knows nothing. then eventually come up with a - So, he finds his way to Synthesis. Agora (Marketplace in - Thesis: The first Athens) to find a person idea/understanding. wiser than him. PAGE 2 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer - Anti-thesis: The exposure rightfulness and wrongfulness of the weakness of your of conduct. idea, the contradiction. - Also known as Axiology. - Synthesis: The higher Ex. Is morality objective or version of your first idea. subjective? ➔ Aesthetics (Beauty) - Determining the criteria for C CLASSIFYING PHILOSOPHIES judgements about beauty. - Also known as Axiology (Talks THEMATIC TYPES (BRANCHES OF about Standard or Value in PHILOSOPHY) general.) - Philosophies are distinguished Ex. When an art is immoral, is it from one another according to still considered beautiful? the topics or issues addressed. MODERN WAY OF CLASSIFICATION: ➔ Logic (Reasoning) ➔ Social and Political Philosophy - Distinguishing between (The State) correct and incorrect forms of - Legitimizing the existence of reasoning. the state, defining social and Ex. Is my argument valid? distributive justice​. ➔ Epistemology (Knowledge) Ex. What is Justice? - Determining the kinds of ➔ Philosophy of Science sources and conditions for - Distinguishing between knowledge. scientific and non-scientific - Epistemics ; Knowledge statements. Ex. What is the source of - Sometimes tackled under Knowledge? Metaphysics or Epistemology. ➔ Metaphysics (Reality/Existence) Ex. How do we know that - Establishing whether reality Scientific Investigations lead us consists of physical objects only, to the truth? of non-physical. It talks about ➔ Philosophy of Religion “beings” in general. - Clarifying the meaning of - Also known as Ontology. religious statements, proving Ex. What is Being? their existence. ➔ Ethics (Morality) Ex. Does God exist? - Identifying the standards for ➔ Philosophy of Language making moral judgements, (Linguistic) clarifying the meaning of moral - Determining the meaning of judgements. Justification of proper names, definite PAGE 3 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer descriptions and psychological ➔ Hermeneutics- Different forms statements. of textual analysis as methods Ex. How do words and of interpretation sentences acquire meaning? ➔ Marxism- Methods of historical ➔ Philosophy of the Mind and economic analysis and (Consciousness) dialectical materialism. - Establishing whether the ➔ Existentialism- Analysis that mind is physical or not. relates to life’s meaning. Ex. Is the mind separated from ➔ Feminism- Gender analysis the body? ➔ Post-modernism- Deconstruction and Power POSITIONAL TYPES: analysis. - Philosophies are distinguished from one another according to REGIONAL TYPES the answers that they propose - Philosophies are distinguished for a certain issue​. according to the geographical ➔ Deontology- The consequence location in which the of the action has nothing to do Philosophy transpired or with it. flourished​. ➔ Consequentialism- Right and Wrong bases on the EASTERN WESTERN consequence of the action. ➔ Virtue Ethics- The right Soteriological​- Theoretical between two extremes. Study of - Vices: Ethically wrong Salvation ➔ Care Ethics- Concern/Caring for the other person and doing HISTORICAL TYPES: what leads to his or her welfare. - Philosophies are distinguished from one another according to the period in which said C1 Philosophical Methods philosophy occurred. ​ ➔ Ancient ​(585 B.C. to 400 A.D)​ ➔ Analytical Philosophy- ➔ Medieval (400 A.D to 1500 A.D)​ Conceptual and Logical ➔ Modern ​(1500 A.D to 1900 A.D)​ Analysis. ➔ Contemporary (1900 to ➔ Phenomenology- Direct Present)​ Experiencial Analysis PAGE 4 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer They are Theistic by LECTURE 2: WESTERN AND EASTERN PHILOSOPHY nature/religious. B GREEK PHILOSOPHY TOPIC OVERVIEW A. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ➔ Mythological Explanation WESTERN AND EASTERN - Worldview, is a set of PHILOSOPHIES beliefs about B. GREEK PHILOSOPHY a. Natural Philosophers fundamental aspects of C. CHINESE CIVILIZATION reality that ground and a. Confucius’ Cultivation influence all one’s of Virtue perceiving, thinking, and D. INDIAN CIVILIZATION doing. (Funk, Ken, 2001) a. Their Philosophy - In Mythology, has a b. Hindu Caste System particular worldview. The c. Paths to Attain Moksha world is composed of entities that is powerful than us. They are the A DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ones who created this WESTERN AND EASTERN world and are PHILOSOPHIES responsible for us. - Myth: A narrative ➔ The Greeks, Chinese, and the containing Gods and Indians claimed to be the first Goddesses to explain a ones to Philosophize. phenomenon. ➔ The 3 civilizations has different ➔ Etological Interpretation of objectives: Myths - Greeks: Primarily - A modern approach to concerned with the understand a myth. question “Where are - Myths as narratives contain we?” the same cause and effect - Chinese: “What are structure as those found in the we?”/”What is a human?” scientific explanations, the - Indians: They are difference however lies in the ascetics/hermits, they lack of Epistemic worte their meditations Paraphernalia. trying to find out the answer to “who are we?”. PAGE 5 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer B1 Natural Philosophers - Epistemic Paraphernalia: Instruments for knowledge. - In terms of scientific THALES explanations, it is based on the ➔ The First Natural Philosopher notion of Causality. Causality, ➔ He gave us the idea that the the cause and effect, in such a world came from water. way that for every given effect, ➔ He proves it by saying Seeds are there must be a cause behind moist, the Body came from it. water (60%), and the Baby PHILOSOPHY came from the womb which is I moist. MILETUS (A port from Eastern ANAXIMANDER Greece.) ➔ He came up with the idea that I the world came from a Milesian Philosophers substance that has 4 qualities, The First Physicists (They are finding than he calls Apeiron. the “arche” behind “physis”) ➔ Dryness, Hotness, Wetness, and I Coldness. These properties can “Arche” - Principles behind the become a different substance changes in nature. with one dominating the other. “Physis” - Nature ANAXIMENES I ➔ He believed that the world The Natural Philosophers came from air. ➔ Pneuma- The divine breath of ➔ Principle of Sufficient Reason life. - An explanation to be ➔ When air becomes dense, it considered adequate. For an becomes water. In short, explanation for a kind of Condensation. reasoning to be considered ➔ When air becomes thinner, it sufficient, it must contain becomes fire. In short, unobservable terms. (Leibnitz) Rarefaction. ➔ Empirically Verifiable ➔ It came from religious - It can be verified by influences. “Dum spiro, spero. experience. (As long as I breathe, I hope.)” ➔ Spirit - Spiro (Is to breathe) - “All Western Philosophy is a footnote EMPEDOCLES to Plato” - Alfred North Whitehead ➔ He believed that the world came from 4 roots: Air, Fire, PAGE 6 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer Water, and Earth. (Warm, Dry, ➔ “You cannot step on the same Moist, and Cool) river twice, either you, or the PARMENIDES river has changed.” ➔ He believed that the senses is ➔ Panta Rei - Everything Changes not enough and should not be used to look for the truth of the C CHINESE CIVILIZATION origin of the world. ➔ Senses are capable of committing error. - Their first philosophy were found in ➔ He thinks change is an illusion. the texts of Confucius, who has a more The world implies the transition sober objective. from a state of is to a state of is - The Chinese were more practical. not. - The Chinese finds themselves in ANAXAGORAS chaos, because they forgot who the ➔ He believed that the world human person is. came from seeds. (Which is unseen from the naked eye) ➔ Nuos, the universal mind, the C1 Confucius’ Cultivation of Virtue one who combined the seeds. A divine being that combined the Ren - Humanity seeds together. ➔ Composed of the characters DEMOCRITUS “erh (two)” and “da (human ➔ He came up with the idea of person)”. Atomic Picture. The world is ➔ A human lives with another composed of Atom. Atoms person. People forget that the cannot be cut. human lives with another ➔ When you encounter “a”, it person. They feel that the other means negative and “tomos” person violates their rights. means cut. Yi - Righteousness ➔ Atoms will combine because ➔ Composed of the characters they are perpetually in motion. “yang (goat/king)”, “nu HERACLITUS (woman/mother)”, and “ming ➔ He believes the world is in a (name)”. constant state of lux. The world ➔ These characters portrays a changes and changes. mother goat carrying her ➔ Fire, a metaphor for something young/ You will carry out your that is always changing, always duty as if its given by the King. moving. ➔ Perform your duty sincerely. If you are a righteous person, do your duties faithfully. PAGE 7 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer Li - Propriety (Decorum) D INDIAN CIVILIZATION ➔ It is composed by characters that looked like a Burial urn and Someone who is bowing. - Their first philosophy is concerned ➔ Be mindful of your own actions. with the understanding of who the Use proper decorum. human person is. “Who am I?” Zhong - Positive Aspect of the Golden - This world is an illusory world (Maya) Mean - Atman (Soul) is the portion of ➔ Composed of the characters Brahma (Universal Soul). A piece of “xin (heart)”. God’s soul is within us. ➔ Help them the way you want - A person is composed of Atman and them to help you. his Jiva (Body)-the part of us that ➔ Reciprocity. dies-no matter how hard you take Shu - Negative Aspect of the Golden care of it, it will still wither away. Mean - Brahma is incapable of change. ➔ Composed with the characters “kuo (mouth)”, “xin (heart)”, and SAMSARA (Life, MOKSHA “nu (mother). Death, Rebirth) (Cessation) ➔ Take to heart what your mother - Life is a Cynical - The end of says. Process. Samsara. ➔ A warning. Don’t do to others - Concept of - This is only what you don’t want them to reincarnation. fulfilled if you are do to you. Different body, with your maker. Xin - Sincerity same soul. ➔ Composed with the characters - For them, reincarnation is a “kuo (mouth)”, stand by, and punishment. person. ➔ You will stand by your word of mouth. - Your next life is governed by the Zhi - Wisdom principle of weeping. Your next life will ➔ Composed with the characters depend on what you did in your past mouth, performance, and life. written word. - Karma is like a seed. You reap what ➔ The person who knows what is you sow. Karma: Principle of Divine right, will do right and avoid the Justice/Seed. It will happen in this life wrong. or in the next life. PAGE 8 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer - completely rejecting physical comfort and D2 Hindu Caste System (Varnas) gaining complete control over your body and mind​ Brahmins- (Priests, Royal Advisers, Intellectual Leaders) Kshatriyas- (Rulers, Warriors, and D3 Paths to Attain Moksha Large Landowners) Vaishyas- (Merchants, Farmers, - Yoga is a path to attain Moksha. Traders) ➔ Karma Yoga Shudras- (Laborers, Slaves) - The Path of Love. Do good deeds to every being. Dalits- (Untouchables- Street Sweepers, Dead Body Handlers, ➔ Bhakti Yoga Human/Animal Waste Removers, - Path of Devotion to Purity. The Outcastes) God will be the one to get you out of your Samsara if he sees - Dharma, doing one’s duty religiously. you devoted to him. That’s your path to salvation. ➔ Raja Yoga - Do not cling into this world (Suntaya - Path of Self-Control. ; Emptiness). You don’t focus on the Aranyakas. Controlling your God, you are focused on the world but body to liberate and do the world leaves you. positions/postures to attain union with God, ➔ Bramacharya (Student Life) ➔ Jhana Yoga - First 25 years of your life. - The Path of Knowledge of Self. ➔ Grihastha (Household Stage) The true nature of your real self. - 25-60 years. Married life, maintaining the LECTURE 3: HAPPINESS AND household. HELLENISM ➔ Vanaprastha (Forest Dwelling Stage) - Retirement Phase (51-75 TOPIC OVERVIEW years), handling it over to A. HELLENISM the next generation. B. HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHIES ➔ Sannyasa (Wandering Ascetic a. Happiness as Stage) Eudaimonia b. Happiness as the PAGE 9 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer - For Socrates, the soul is important. If Ultimate good (Aristotle) you want to be happy, cater the needs c. Hedonism, of your soul. Epicureanism, - If you’re pursuing earthly pleasures Cynicism, and Stoicism than your spiritual needs, then you are blinded by Apparent Goodness. - Apparent Goodness: apparent (it appears to A HELLENISM be). It appears to be good for you but in reality its - A period in history where Greek not. Culture was propagated in much of the Western World. An offshoot of B2 Happiness as the Ultimate Alexander the Great’s conquest. Good (Aristotle) - The Philosophies that emerged during this era were called, Hellenistic Philosophies. - Telos: Purpose or End (Aristotelian Terminology), everything happens for a reason. B HELLENISTIC PHILOSOPHIES ➔ Proximate End - Pursued for the sake of - Focused on Ethics, ethical questions. something else. - Focused on the individual and how ➔ Ultimate End can they improve one’s well being. - Pursued for its own sake. - Results of being in a “Cosmopolis”. - Subservient: Deeper end. The need - Is - Ought Dichotomy (What it is, to be happy. dictates what it ought to be.) Your - The Ultimate end is to be happy. idea about what the world is, B3 Hedonism, Epicureanism, B1 Happiness as Eudaimonia Cynicism, and Stoicism - Socrates viewed happiness as a form ➔ HEDONISM (Aristippus) of Eudaimonia. - hedone ; Pleasure - daimon ; Inner Self - Happiness is achieved by - eu ; Good pursuing pleasure and avoiding pain. It is the indulgence of our - You need to know yourself for you to senses. be happy in this world. - memento mori ; Remember, Death! PAGE 10 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer ➔ EPICUREANISM (Epicurus) not need to depend on - The Rational Pursuit of anyone. Pleasure. You cannot pursue ➔ STOICISM (Zeno of Citium) pleasure blindly, as painful - Stoa ; Porch (Where Zeno of consequences can come from Citium gave his lectures) pleasurable moments. - If you want to be happy, you - Make sure that pleasurable must have a peaceful soul. Your moment will be free from state of mind should be calm. aponia (a- negative/panos- - Equanimity of the soul, you pain) or freedom from are not swayed by anything. suffering/pain and ataraxia - Understanding of how the (mental agitation). world operates and how should - 4 Cures of you react accord to it. Happiness/Epicurus’ Medicinal - It is also the idea that we Herbs: should Dichotomize what is God is not to be feared within and outside of our Death is nothing to be control. (You cut it in half) worried about 4 VIRTUES OF STOICISM Good is easy to obtain Wisdom Pain is easy to endure - Your knowledge in something ➔ CYNICISM that you cannot control and (Anisthenes/Diogenes of there are things that you can Sinope) control. - Kunikos ; Dog-like Temperance - A way of life. A “Dog-like” way - You curb your desires. The of life best exemplified by the more you want something, the life of Diogenes the Sinope more you will not be happy. (who lived in a ceramic jar and Envy is the opposite of spurned Athenian Etiquette) Happiness. - Happiness is characterized by: Courage Eleutheria - Liberty/ - It requires courage to change, Freedom. If you want to to stand up for what is right, to be happy in this life, you stand part in your ideas. need to be free. Justice Parrhesia - Frankness in - Its hard to be happy and stoic Speech. if you do not hae a sense of Autarkeia - Justice. So, do what is right. Self-sufficiency. You do PAGE 11 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer ➔ Ex. A scientific theory is LECTURE 4: LOGIC/TRUTH/FALLACIES accepted as true when there is widespread agreement among experts in the field based on TOPIC OVERVIEW collective evidence. Constructivist Theory of Truth​ A. THEORIES OF TRUTH ➔ Truth is a product of social and B. REASONING vs MERELY STATING linguistic processes, thus truths a. Argument about the world are not b. Premise and discovered (treated as objective Conclusion features of reality) but instead c. Types of Reasoning they are shaped by historical, C. FALLACIES cultural and social factors.​ a. Types of Fallacies ➔ Ex. Own understanding of concepts through hands-on A THEORIES OF TRUTH experiences, social interactions, and personal reflections. Pragmatic Theory of Truth​ Correspondence Theory of Truth ➔ A statement is true if it is useful ➔ A statement or proposition is for us to believe that it is true.​ true if it corresponds to reality Useful in a sense that it helps us or an actual state of affairs​. understand, predict and behave ➔ Ex. The sky is blue. in an efficient manner if we Coherence Theory of Truth view it as true.​ ➔ The truth of a proposition is ➔ Ex. Believing that exercise based on its coherence with a improves health because it set of propositions consistently leads to better physical fitness. and largely held by a community to be true.​ ➔ Ex. A belief is true if it B REASONING vs MERELY coherently fits within a larger STATING system of beliefs, such as how the theory of evolution aligns ➔ Merely Stating- Expressing with various scientific findings your belief. in biology. ➔ Reasoning- Expressed through Consensus Theory of Truth​ an argument. ➔ A statement is true if everyone ➔ Argument- Is any group of agrees it to be true.​ Truth is a propositions of which one is matter of societal agreements. ​ claimed to follow from the PAGE 12 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer others, which are regarded as ➔ Syllogism- It has 2 premises; providing support or grounds Major and Minor and the for that one. It has a structure: Conclusion. - Premise: - Minor Premise: You can - The one who gives or find the subject. act as support. The - Major Premise: You can supporting detail. find the Predicate (the - Conclusion: major term). - The one that you Ex. “Man is mortal (Major wanted to say. Premise), Socrates is mortal (Minor Ex. "If we ban Hummers, then Premise). Therefore, Socrates is eventually all cars will be banned. mortal. (Conclusion). (Premise) Therefore, we should not ban Hummers. (Conclusion)" 2 TYPES OF REASONING Premise Indicators: DEDUCTIVE INDUCTIVE Since, Because, For, As, As shown by, REASONING REASONING Inasmuch as, As indicated by, The reason is that, For the reason that, May - Movement of - Movement of be inferred from, May be deduced General to Specific to Specific. General. from, May be derived from, In view of - Its always - Its like a that fact, Assuming that, Seeing that, necessary. scientific Granted that, This is true because, method. Given that, One cannot doubt that​… - Notice of pattern; its Conclusion Indicators: highly probable. Therefore, Hence, Thus, So, Accordingly, In consequence, ➔ Dictum de Omni- What applies Consequently, Which proves that, As a to A, also applies to B. result, For this reason, It follows that, ➔ Dictum de Nullo- What is not We may infer, I conclude that, Which applicable to A, is not shows that, Which means that, Which applicable to B. entails that, Which implies that, Which allows us to infer that, Which ➔ Induction points to the conclusion that, This - The truth of the premises being so, The moral is​… intends to prove that the conclusion is highly probable. ​ PAGE 13 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer ➔ Ex. No one has proven that C FALLACIES ghosts don't exist. (Premise) Therefore, ghosts must exist. FALSE ANALOGY (Conclusion)" ➔ Because of the 2 similarities of 2 ➔ Superstitions can be an things, you assume the one is example of this fallacy. applicable to the other. APPEAL TO INAPPROPRIATE ➔ Ex. “Bananas and telephones AUTHORITY are both shaped to fit into ➔ Basing on someone who is not human hands (Premise) at authority figure. therefore, bananas were ➔ Ex. “Peace is the best strategy created for humans alone. (Conclusion) because Einstein (Conclusion)" said so. (Premise)” FALLACY OF EQUIVOCATION APPEAL TO THE PERSON (AD ➔ Occurs when a word or phrase HOMINEM) is used in an argument ➔ You attack the person, ambiguously, even though it personally. appears to be used consistently. ➔ Ex. “Pano mo nasabi? Ang In simple terms, it means using panget panget mo naman.” the same word in an argument APPEAL TO PITY (AD to refer to different things. MISERICORDIAM) ➔ Ex. All stars twinkle in the night ➔ A fallacy that occurs when sky. (Major Premise) Miles Cena someone tries to persuade is a star (Minor Premise). others by evoking feelings of Therefore, Miles Cena twinkles pity or guilt instead of in the night sky (Conclusion) presenting logical arguments or FALLACY OF COMPOSITION evidence. ➔ There is a right part in the ➔ Ex. "Ladies and gentlemen of sentence. But that doesn’t the jury, look at this poor man mean that the whole sentence in a wheelchair. (Premise) is right. Falsely attributing the Could such a man really be right part of the sentence. guilty of embezzlement? ➔ Ex. "Each ingredient in this cake (Conclusion)" is delicious. (Premise) APPEAL TO POPULAR WILL Therefore, the cake itself must (BANDWAGON ARGUMENT) be delicious. (Conclusion)” ➔ If the others say that this is APPEAL TO IGNORANCE right, it doesn’t mean that it ➔ If there is no evidence, that is should be right. the evidence itself. PAGE 14 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer ➔ Ex. “75% of the population FALSE CAUSE (POST HOC ERGO believes that Mark Boo is PROPTER HOC/AFTER THIS, corrupt (Premise), and I just THEREFORE BECAUSE OF THIS) can't vote for a liar. ➔ Assuming a cause-and-effect (Conclusion)” relationship between unrelated APPEAL TO FORCE (AD BACCULUM) events. ➔ Occurs when someone uses ➔ Ex. "I wore my lucky shirt and threats or intimidation. won the game. (Premise) My ➔ Ex. "You should stay with me; lucky shirt caused the victory. otherwise, I’ll hurt myself. (Conclusion)" (Premise) Thus, you need to BEGGING THE QUESTION (CIRCULAR stay in this relationship. LOGIC) (Conclusion)” ➔ Assuming the idea or thing to COMPLEX QUESTION be proven is true; is also known ➔ Also known as a loaded as “circular logic”. It uses its question. When a question is own conclusion as part of its phrased in such a way that it premise without providing presupposes something that independent support. has not been established, ➔ Ex. “I have a right to free forcing the respondent into an speech, therefore you cannot implicit admission of guilt or stop me from talking.” The wrongdoing regardless of how premise is the conclusion, the they answer. conclusion is the premise. ➔ Ex. "Have you stopped beating FALLACY OF ACCIDENT (DICTO your wife?" This question SIMPLICITER) assumes that the person has ➔ If it applies to the whole, it beaten their wife in the past. applies to the part. Answering "yes" implies they ➔ Ex. "Exercise is good for did so before while answering everyone. (Premise) Therefore, "no" implies still doing it. everyone should run a FALSE DILEMMA/DICHOTOMY marathon. (Conclusion)" ➔ a logical fallacy that occurs CONVERSE ACCIDENT (HASTY when an argument presents GENERALIZATION) only two options or outcomes in ➔ Concluding a whole group a situation and ignores possible based on an insufficient or outcomes. unrepresentative sample. ➔ Ex. "You either support the new ➔ Ex. "I know two people who tax plan, or you want to see our smoked their entire lives and schools fail." lived to be 90. (Premise) PAGE 15 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A  Centro Escolar Integrated School - Makati INTRODUCTION TO PHILOSOPHY Mx. Jess Emmanuel Castro | 11 - ABM/STEM | 1st Quarter Reviewer Therefore, smoking cannot be - Ex. "The bank can refuse to harmful to health. (Conclusion)” lend money. (Premise) Thus, banks are untrustworthy. INFORMAL FALLACIES- Are also (Conclusion)" called material fallacies, since they are due to an anomaly or defect in the content in the argument. ➔ FALLACIES OF AMBIGUITY - Fallacies in which the error in reasoning is brought about by the occurrence of ambiguous (2 or more meaning) terms whose meanings are confused in an argument. - Ex. “All beetles have six legs. John Lennon is a Beatle (Premise), thus John Lennon has six legs. (Conclusion)” ➔ FALLACIES OF RELEVANCE - Fallacies in which the error in reasoning is brought about by the irrelevance of the premise or premises to the conclusion of an argument. ​ - Ex. Argument from ignorance, Appeal to Inappropriate Authority, Appeal to Pity, Appeal to Popular Will and Appeal to Force​. ➔ FALLACIES OF PRESUMPTION - Fallacies in which the error in reasoning is brought about by the occurrence of complex or loaded expressions whose assumptions are questionable or have not yet been proven to be true. ​ PAGE 16 ANJELICA BIANCA N. DAGDAG - ABM 11-A