brain and behaviour exam 3

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what is the basis for psychological disorders

biological and experience

describe the obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)

repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) like the fear for the safety of the self or others, symmetry, and religious or moral concerns the need to carry out repetitive behaviors (compulsions) like washing, checking, touching, counting, and arranging (they appear to be efforts to ward off the anxiety produced by the obsessions)

what is the genetic basis for OCD?

substantial concordance rates (63–87 percent) are found in monozygotic twins

what are the brain chances in OCD?

OCD is associated with abnormalities in circuits connecting the thalamus, basal ganglia, and orbitofrontal cortex lower activity in the orbitofrontal cortex might be responsible for some of the rigid, ritualistic behavior observed in OCD Signup and view all the answers

what are emotions

physiological experience + awareness/ physical sensation + conscious, subjective experience Signup and view all the answers

what emotions are there

happiness, sadness, disgust, fear, anger, surprise Signup and view all the answers

what is james-lange peripheral motor theory

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edgar allan poe, Everson and Ruef theory

people are best at assessing emotions of another when their own emotions match the other person's emotions Signup and view all the answers

cannon-bard theory

both subjective and physical responses occur simultaneously and independently, stimulus produces physiological responses and cognitive sensations without feedback from PNS Signup and view all the answers

hohman theory

lesions in spinal cord determine emotions lumbar region- less intensity cervical region- more intensity Signup and view all the answers

schatcher- singer theory

stimulus produces general arousal, we make conscious, cognitive appraisal of our circumstances and identify how we feel epinephrine weakness of the theory- physiological responses are related to specific emotions Signup and view all the answers

paul maclean theory of the limbic system

hypothalamus (fight or flight), hippocampus (memory, stress), amygdala (fear) three layered brain- reptilian (primitive responses), visceral (emotions), new (neocortex, interference between emotions and cognition), emotions evloved to ensure survival weakness- thinking that a single system is responsible for all emotions Signup and view all the answers

LeDoux

emotional reactions are generated unconsciously in response to different neural systems that evolved for different reasons Signup and view all the answers

contemporary theory of emotions

sensory cortex → amygdala, brainstem, hypothalamus → autonomic (involuntary) nervous system → somasensory cortex encodes it as a somatic marker → ventomedial prefrontal cortex creates associations Signup and view all the answers

Yerkes- Dodson law

one possible advantage of emotions is their contribution to general arousal, for simple tasks performance improves as arousal increases, for complex tasks performance increases with arousal up to a point, then decreases Signup and view all the answers

Darwin's theory

emotional expression has strong biological basis, emotions are universal, basic six emotions, emotion expression varies to some degree based on the emotion from a typical set of movements, a prototype Signup and view all the answers

four-scheme model of expression

each emotion communicates a specific combination of valence, arousal and dominance Signup and view all the answers

the constructionist theories

a wide range of all emotions are shaped by language and cognitive appraisal, they can be all located in a circle, circumples characterized by different amount of valence and arousal Signup and view all the answers

Antonio Damasio's theory

anger, sadness, fear, happiness- complex patterns in the brain that are distinct but single brain regions can participate in more than one Signup and view all the answers

what is the role of the amygdala

it is a fear circut, participates in emotion, reward, motivation, learning, memory and attention, bilateral damage to it causes difficulty reduces emotionality and causes difficulty in recognition of anger and fear in other’s expressions Signup and view all the answers

describe the pathway between amygdala and thalamus

it receives input from most sensory systems and provides rapid, crude evaluation of emotional significance of a stimulus, stimulus → thalamus → amygdala → emotional response Signup and view all the answers

what is the evidence of amygdala's role in processing negative emotions?

the number of benzodiazepine (tranquilizers) receptors in the amygdala, greater activation happens when watching reactions of fear than happiness Signup and view all the answers

in what does the anterior singulate cortex participate?

both physical and social pain being excluded- similar to physical pain Signup and view all the answers

what do we know from Phineas Gage's case?

cortical damage particularly to frontal lobes causes emotional disturbances frontal lobe is not associated with intelligence but with reduction in emotions like fear and anxiety Signup and view all the answers

what did Walter Freeman came up with? explain it

lobotomies (ice pick surgery) severing connections between frontal lobe and anterior cingulate cortex, produced seizures, lack of inhibition, impulsivity, lack of initiative Signup and view all the answers

where do facial nerves originate?

in two facial nuclei on either side of midline in pons they do not communicate with each other- expressions vary in both halves of face Signup and view all the answers

what are the nerves in the top 1/3 of the face?

ipsilateral and contralateral facial nerves inverted bilaterally (up and down) Signup and view all the answers

what are the nerves in the lower 2/3 of the face?

contralateral facial nerve cross-inverted prevalently from contralateral side (left- right, toward the face edge) Signup and view all the answers

what is the two way facial expression system?

two pathways coordinate voluntary and involuntary movements voluntary- input from primary motor cortex sends info to facial cranial nerve 7 spontaneous- subcortical pathway mediated by basal ganglia and substantia nigra Signup and view all the answers

what is the voluntary facial paralysis?

damage to primary motor cortex, being unable to smile on command on side contralateral lower to damage, can show spontaneous smile Signup and view all the answers

what is the emotional facial paresis?

ppl with parkinson’s (with damage to subcortical motor structures) cannot smile spontaneously, can smile on command Signup and view all the answers

measuring facial movements

emovere facial action coding system scores facial expressions, originally developed for manual coding or automated FACS coding trained in prototypical images Signup and view all the answers

what is stress

a subjective, unpleasant state resulting from perception (variable and idiosyncratic) of danger or threat Signup and view all the answers

Walter Cannon

fight or flight stressors like extreme cold, lack of oxygen, emotional experiences stimulate sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system, heart rate, blood pressure, respiration increase → functions not essential are inhibited → stored energy is released → blood vessels at surface from blood toward skeletal muscles Signup and view all the answers

Hans Selye general adaptation syndrome

stressor → alarm (fight or flight) → resistance (continue coping) → exhaustion (reserves depleted) Signup and view all the answers

what is the reaction to stress of the pathway mediating physical, cognitive and behavioural reactions to it.

sensory system detects threat → connection with higher cortical processing identify it ans access memories → sensory info enters amygdala → sends info to hypothalamus through strial terminals (bed nucleus of stria termilans) activate hypothalamic pituitary adrenal HPA axis → info reaches paraventriculat nucleus of hypothalamus with connections to locus coerleus in spinal cord and pituary gland → PVN releases corticotrophin releasing hormone CRH and vasopressin (chemical messengers between hypothalamus and AP gland → AP gland releases adrenocorticothropic hormone ACTH, diffuses into bloodstream to adrenal glands, stimulates release of cortisol, released in pulses, 15 min cortisol release Signup and view all the answers

what is the relation between amygdala and hypothalamus to CRH (cortico releasing hormone)

amygdala stimulates CRH release by hypothalamus, hippocampus inhibits CRH release Signup and view all the answers

what is the hippocampus's role in CRH

hippocampus contains receptors for glusocorticoids (like cortisol)- it acts like a feedback loop if cortisol levels in hippocampus are too high CRH release in hypothalamus is reduces leading to less ACTH and cortisol release Signup and view all the answers

what is the relation between PTSD and hippocampus size?

hippocampus's size is smaller in patients with PTSD consistent high levels of cortisol overwhelm the hippocampus, which makes the patients more vulnerable to chronic stress Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between cortisol and neurons?

cortisol increases calcium entering neurons leading to increase in neurotransmitters too much calcium is toxic, because it might overwhelm hippocampal loop Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between cortisol and lymphocytes

cortisol supresses activity of (B) lymphocytes which protect us from infection and cancer, HIV Signup and view all the answers

John Macleod research

hospital records of heart disease were lowest in men with most stress Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between stress and pain?

stress might produce analgesia (pain relief) by releasing endogeneous opioids (endorphins) Signup and view all the answers

what was Freud's view on stress?

traumatic memories become inaccessible, are lost or repressed in PTSD- vivid, moderate stress produces unclear memories, high stress interfenes with accurate memory encoding Signup and view all the answers

describe PTSD

caused by natural disasters, accidents, assults and abuse characterized by intrusive memories, reccuremt dreams, avoidance of stimuli associated with trauma, twice as many women develop PTSD, children have 25% chance, adults 15% chance the medicine for it is propanolol which blocks glucocorticoids Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between stress and benzodiazepine receptors

stress decreases benzodiazepine receptors binding in the frontal cortex Signup and view all the answers

describe schizophrenia

it disrupts perception, reason, emotion, movement, and social engagement criteria for schizophrenia specify the presence of hallucinations, delusions, disturbances of mood, and disorganised thinking Signup and view all the answers

what are the symptoms or schizophrenia

positive symptoms are behaviors that are not expected to occur normally, such as hallucinations and delusions negative symptoms, such as social withdrawal and mood disturbance, occur when normal and expected behaviors are missing symptoms differ in their underlying causes and responses to treatment Signup and view all the answers

what was Eugen Bleuler's view on schizophrenia

he believed, that the condition actually represented a group of diseases rather than a single entity Signup and view all the answers

are schizophrenia's symptoms stable or do they change?

different 30 percent experienced periodic psychotic episodes interspersed with times of relatively normal health another 30 percent experienced repeated and increasingly severe psychotic episodes another 11 percent experienced a single psychotic episode with no subsequent recovery Signup and view all the answers

how do we establish a general contribution for a disorder

we observe the concordance rate, or presence of the disorder within groups of closely related people, particularly twins. Signup and view all the answers

what is the concordance rate in schizophrenia

about 50 percent in identical twins and about 17 percent in fraternal twins Signup and view all the answers

what changes in the brain can be signs of schizophrenia?

enlarged lateral ventricles, represent a loss of neurons in adjacent areas smaller hippocampus (responsible for memory and cognition) causes deficits in reasoning and thought lower activity in the frontal lobes causes mood disturbance and social withdrawal Signup and view all the answers

what is the number of people diagnosed with schizophrenia?

0.5 to 1 percent of the population, between the ages of 18 and 25 years (it suggests genetic predisposition) Signup and view all the answers

what are the indicators of schizophrenia?

patients with schizophrenia and some of their family members show inability to smoothly trace objects with their eyes (which suggests a genetic predisposition) Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between developing schizophrenia and quality of mother's pregnancy?

difficulties during pregnancy (bleeding and diabetes), abnormal fetal development (low birth weight and small head circumference), birth complications (emergency caesarean section, lack of oxygen), mother’s exposure to famine or viral infection is positively correlated with the development of schizophrenia Signup and view all the answers

how are viral enzymes affected by schizophrenia?

people recently diagnosed with schizophrenia have higher levels of viral enzymes in their brains and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) than healthy controls Signup and view all the answers

what is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?

amphetamine, cocaine, and levadopa (used to treat Parkinson’s disease) are dopamine agonists, which can produce behaviors similar to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia the dopamine antagonists used to treat schizophrenia act by blocking the dopamine receptors. (about one quarter of all patients with schizophrenia fail to respond favorably to this treatment) Signup and view all the answers

what is a common side effect of drugs for schizophrenia?

tardive dyskinesia it causes tremors and involuntary movements, especially in the face and tongue Signup and view all the answers

what are the two types of mood disorders?

major depressive disorder (MDD) bipolar disorder Signup and view all the answers

describe MDD

at least 2 weeks of uninterrupted periods of depressed mood and loss of pleasure in their normal activities including hobbies and sex, affects eating habits, energy levels, sleep, and cognition adult women are nearly twice as likely as men to be diagnosed with MDD Signup and view all the answers

describe bipolar disorder

periods of unrealistically elevated mood (mania) and periods of profound depression Signup and view all the answers

what are the brain and body's changes in MDD

smaller hippocampus and the orbitofrontal cortex (responsible for emotional regulation) disturbance in circadian rhythms (physical, mental and behavioral changes that follow a roughly 24-hour cycle, responding primarily to light and darkness in an organism's environment) Signup and view all the answers

what is the seasonal affective disorder?

seasonal variations in light interfere with circadian rhythms. its symptoms are sleeping more than normal (more than nine hours) and sleeping less than normal (less than seven hours) Signup and view all the answers

describe the sleep cycle of a depressed person

people who are depressed enter their first cycle of REM sleep after approximately 45 minutes of sleep rather than the normal 90 minutes. stages 3 and 4 of NREM sleep are reduced, and the lighter stages 1 and 2 are more prominent it is much easier to awaken during REM or during NREM Stages 1 and 2 so frequent waking during the night is a common complaint associated with depression Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between serotonin and depression?

abnormalities in serotonin activity are a basis for depression selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are frequently used to treat depression, they act to increase the availability of serotonin at the synapse Signup and view all the answers

what is the monoamine hypothesis of depression?

monoamines play essential role in the regulation of sleep and waking cycles Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between cortisol and stress

cortisol is one of several glucocorticoids released by the adrenal glands in response to both circadian rhythms and stress-related activity in the so-called hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis Signup and view all the answers

is anxiety genetical?

vulnerability to anxiety disorder appears to be inherited, but related people will not necessarily experience the same type of anxiety disorder families in which anxiety disorders are common are also more likely to have members with major depressive disorder because these disorders appear to share an underlying genetic basis Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between anxiety and neurotransmitters?

they participate in the management of anxiety (serotonin, norepinephrine, and GABA) Signup and view all the answers

what is the relationship between GABA and anxiety?

alcohol and benzodiazepines probably achieve their antianxiety results by enhancing the inhibitory effects of GABA at the synapse Signup and view all the answers

what are the common anxiety medications?

serotonin agonist, tricyclic antidepressants, and benzodiazepines Signup and view all the answers

what are the conscious and unconscious brain processes involved in expressing fear and anxiety?

unconscious- information is rapidly and unconsciously sent from the eyes through the sensory thalamus to the amygdala, which makes us aware of the problem conscious- the visual cortex receives the same information from the thalamus, leading to conscious awareness and identification of danger Signup and view all the answers

what is the typical treatment for patients with OCD?

the most severe cases of OCD occur in patients with the lowest serotonin levels, making serotonin function a logical target for treatment behavioral therapy deep brain stimulation of the basal ganglia Signup and view all the answers

describe a panic attack

during a panic attack, a person experiences “intense fear” accompanied by strong sympathetic arousal leading to heart palpitations, sweating, trembling, and shortness of breath Signup and view all the answers

describe a panic disorder

panic disorder is diagnosed when repeated panic attacks are followed by at least one month of worrying about having another attack Signup and view all the answers