Work, Employment and Education

• Work typically means paid work, and sociology defines it as any activity that provides a socially valued product or service
• This course focuses on paid work, but it's important to remember that work includes both paid and unpaid types

Student Employment Trends

• Labour force participation rates for full-time students depend on age
• Participation slightly decreases for students aged 15-19
• Participation increases for students in the 20-24 age bracket

Unemployment and Education

• Higher education attainment correlates with lower unemployment rates
• University students have a significant edge in the job market
• Young adults encounter challenges when establishing themselves in the labour market
• They enter the labour market later due to the education now needed for higher positions

Employment Rates

• The unemployment rate doesn't fully capture joblessness since individuals need to be actively looking for work to be classified as unemployed
• Ages 25-54 attain a 6-7% higher employment rate when they have a bachelor's degree
• Gender differences persist such that approximately 15% of women and %10 of men with BAs are not working, potentially due to childbearing after graduation

Job Qualities

• Job qualities fall under two categories
• Intrinsic qualities relate to the nature of the work, so things like passion and independence
• Extrinsic qualities relate to the benefits gained from work, so things like pay and benefits

Analysis Levels in Sociology of Work

• Micro-level analysis focuses on individual characteristics and experiences
• It examines how individuals respond to employment and job searches
• It also focuses on values around work, work ethic, expectations, skills, and job satisfaction
• Macro-level analysis examines social and economic structures
• It looks at changes in the Canadian economy, such as globalization
• Key aspects include the labour market and industrial/occupational mix of jobs
• Also analyzes trends in unionization and government labour policy
• Looks at economic recessions and regional economic decline
• Both micro and macro examinations are important for finding gainful and meaningful employment

Historical Perspectives - Feudalism (9th-15th Century)

• Feudalism came before capitalism in Europe as an economic and political system
• Feudalism was characterized by high social inequality
• Society divided into small aristocracy, merchant class, rural landowning class, and peasantry
• Peasants paid rent (typically produce) to landowners for farming rights
• Status and occupation were mainly assigned at/from birth
• Labour-intensive subsistence agriculture and craft work relied on basic technology
• This meant hard physical labor, with seasonal and irregular hours, using human and animal power
• Poor living conditions which gave most an average life expectancy between 30-35 years
• Individual rights were limited, and wealth and power were largely inherited
• Little economic or social change occurred due to mutual obligations reinforced by culture and religion

Mercantile Capitalism (16th Century - 1500s)

• This was capitalism's earliest phase, and society remained largely feudal
• The global trading system expanded, spurred by new technologies and transportation
• Colonial empires came into being, like England, France, Spain, Holland, and Portugal
• Europeans wanted wealth by acquiring precious metals, spices, sugar, and furs which involved colonization and slavery
• Exports from Canada included furs, fish, cereals, and lumber to France and UK
• Indigenous populations suffered severely from colonization through forced removal from lands, colonial wars, and pandemics
• Small-scale workshops existed called "Cottage industries" that were decentralized and often family-run "Putting out system" where merchants contacted piece work for households

Industrial Revolution (Mid 1700s Onward)

• This era had rapid social and economic change spurred by capital, wealth incentives, scientific knowledge, and surplus labour
• The Scientific Revolution paralleled it, with steam engine development being very important at the time
• The factory system developed for higher productivity with division of labour
• Division of labor separated work processes into specialized tasks
• Adam Smith's pin factory example showed increased productivity through specialization
• Rapid urbanization led to congested, polluted, and unsanitary cities
• Craft workers were replaced by machines deskilling work
• This resulted in impoverished urban working-class

Capitalism and Industrialization - Defining Features

• A distinct social system of production differing from feudalism and socialism
• Labour market creates value with wage labourers
• Owners control who works and how work is done
• Characterized by managerial control, new technologies and energy sources (steam)
• Factory production with higher productivity and urbanization

Theoretical Perspectives: Adam Smith (1723-1790)

• Adam Smith, known as “The Father of Economics” or “The Father of Capitalism"
• Author of The Wealth of Nations (1776)
• Provided ethical foundation of capitalism
• Argued that capitalism can lead to increased wealth and societal prosperity
• Emphasized division of labour as key to productivity
• Developed the concept of the "invisible hand of market" meaning individuals pursuing self-interest create social benefits
• Competition spurs innovation and economic growth
• He believed that industrial capitalism would lead to social progress

Theoretical Perspectives: Karl Marx (1818-1883)

• He had little faith in capitalism and believed capitalism was to blame for widespread poverty, unemployment, high mortality, and slums
• He argued that poverty and unemployment were inevitable under capitalism and that profit under capitalism depended on the exploitation of labour
• Anticipated that capitalism would undermine conditions for its own perpetuation
• Published Das Kapital (1867)

Canada's Industrialization

• No true feudalism existed in Canada, only a limited Seigniorial System in New France (Quebec)
• Instead, Canada developed a "Staples economy" under Mercantile Capitalism
• Canada was a resource-rich colony containing fur, timber, fisheries, and agricultural lands
• Resources remain atypically important to Canada's economy
• Had high immigration to fulfill labour shortages and was a late developer in industrialization
• Canada became the 7th largest manufacturing nation by 1900

Modern Developments

• Post Marx, mortality reduced, literacy climbed, and living standards improved globally along with great gains in productivity via technology
• Liberal and social democracies with regulatory institutions emerged along with an expansion of the public sector (health, teaching, public admin)
• The impact of unionization on wages occurred
• Middle class experienced unexpected growth
• Development of democratic institutions, independent judiciary, and press took place
• Social programs were set in place like public pensions (CPP), welfare, minimum wage, and universal education and healthcare

Classical Economic Perspectives

• Adam Smith believed in the "hidden hand" of the market and that letting businesses pursue self-interest could increase economic activity and wealth
• Karl Marx considered capitalism as problematic in itself, but his forecasts for its collapse never materialized

Minimum Wage Debate

• Serves as an economic stimulus as workers spend extra income and evidence suggests negative effects have been exaggerated
• Potential increase in the cost of living and concerns about less employment growth, and small businesses may struggle with labor costs exist

Economic Rationality

• Classical theory presupposes that human action is rational and people weigh costs/benefits and pursue self-interest
• Emotions and societal factors also influence decision-making
• Sociology examines how individual decisions are shaped by society

Karl Polanyi's Contributions

• He was a pioneer(1886-1964) who helped found a cultural approach to economics
• Emphasized how economies are embedded in society and culture
• Questioned whether human nature is inherently competitive and profit-motivated
• Challenged whether selling land and labour at market-determined prices represents progress

Transformation of Work & Society: Industrial Revolution Changes

• Agriculture had a slow decline after 10,000 years of farming dominance
• Rapid urban growth changed social dynamics
• The factory system was a new form of large-scale production characterized by a decline of skilled craft work and assembly lines

Canada's Industrialization

• It lagged behind other Western countries and accelerated in the late 1800s and early 1900s
• By 1950, about 60% of Canadians worked in good-producing sectors
• Developed as a "branch plant economy" with American companies that were setting up in Canada
• The resource sector (energy, mining, forestry) remains important despite the employment decline

Management Revolution

• Shift from individual/family ownership to corporate structures occurred such as Ford motors that was established in 1920s by Henry Ford, where the family family only owns 2% of the company today
• Rise of joint-stock companies with thousands of investors
• Asset management companies now control many of Canada's largest corporations

Post-Industrial Society - Shift to Service Economy

• Post-Industrialism describes the transition in the late 20th century from manufacturing to service economy
• The majority or 80% of Canadians work in the service sector today
• Service jobs range from high-tech/knowledge-intensive roles to low-skill/labour-intensive positions
• Globalization and automation are factors, and some effects are that De-industrialization hits regions, such as the automotive USA "Rust Belt"

Theories of Post-Industrial Society

• Daniel Bell (1973) in The Coming of Post Industiral Society emphasized the shift from physical to intellectual labour
• His theory predicted that knowledge and technical skills = power and believed in reduced inequality and conflict and that knowledge workers would become new elites
• Richard Florida (2002) in Teh Rise of the Creative Class emphasized creativity as a solution to economic growth in society His theory includes "Three Ts" which make a society flourish, technology, talent and tolerance

Industrial Restructuring

• Dismantling established economic processes for improved methods
• Shift of IBM Bromont from typewriters to computers and microchips as an example
• Sunset Industries such as textiles, coal, steel production are declining in Canada
• Local Restructuring examples include Ford Canada, Caterpillar, and Kellogg's

Employment Changes

• Traditional “good jobs”, which are characterized by having standard 40/hr employment, unionization with job security, defined benfit pensions and good pay are declining
• Rise of "precarious work", characterized by uncertain, unstable, and insecure employment along with service jobs (retail, hospitality, gig economy) has occured

Inequality in Canada

• The Gini coefficient measures relative inequality (0-1 scale) with a higher coefficient meaning greater inequality, and considers household size and resource sharing
• Income inequality in Canada declined in early 20th century but increased in 1980s-1990s, but has been stable after 2000
• Wealth inequality is more severe than income inequality, with 1% controlling a significant portion of national wealth and the top 10% controlling over half

Globalization

• Economic globalization has been on the rise
• Increased promotion of free trade across national boundaries has occurred
• It features "hypermobility of capital”
• Companies invest abroad and companies leverage lower-paid workers in other countries
• Examples include India call centers and autoworkers in Mexico
• Spread of tech, impact of computers and Internet, and "Time-space compression” through web, email and travel has occurred
• Can economic integration leads to cultural integration where potential loss of cultural diversity takes place

Population and Immigration Trends

• Canada's population and labor force continue to grow, primarily driven by immigration
• Canada maintains high immigration levels
• Immigration includes permanent economic, family and refugee immigrants and student, asylum, and temporary worker non-permanent immigrants
• Immigration policies emphasize economic criteria and skill, and the education level of newcomers often surpasses the average education level of Canadian citizens
• Canada prioritizes economic immigrants and limits sponsorships of parents and children
• The policies support temporary workers and students to enhance economy

Population Aging

• Canada's population is aging with a demographic shift from a younger to older society
• A significant number of baby boomers will retire by 2025, creating an imbalance
• The number of 20 year old's are now lower in population than 65 year olds which increases government health care and pension costs
• Retirement patterns have shifted, with seniors often delaying retirement due to lifestyles that are now improved

Regional Population Distribution

• The current Canadian population is unevenly distributed
• Specific regions, such as Souther Ontario BC are especially concentrated
• Other regions like Alberta and BC are experiencing economic and migration based rapid growth - economic migration favors Alberta resulting in depopulation of rural areas

Labour Force Participation

• Labour force participation has changed significantly
• Overall employment has increased over time
• Men's participation has decreased as more men participate in child support and rearing
• This is all impacted by gender equity and again population

Educational Attainment

• The labour force is increasingly educated in Canada
• Education has increased signiciatnly since 1975 and this shift towards higher learning represents evolving job market demands
• About 55% of uni gradutes in Canada are women, despite women continuing to be paid less than men

Industrial & Occupational Shifts

• A majority (78.9%) of employed Canadians work in the service sector (2018)
• The sector is divided into higher roles ( distributive, business, education, public administration) and lower-tier roles (retail trade, consumer services)
• There are age and gender disparities
• Blue-collar jobs roles are on the decline
• White-collar jobs are improving
• There is heavy heavy female concentration in “Pink-collar jobs” such as clerical sales

Data Sources

• Census data is taken every 5 years that mandatory and important.
• Labour Force Surveys are taken monthly and helps to track market trends

Education & Job Market Dynamics

• Education disparities are evident
• Wage legislation also affects the dynamic
• Some jobs require minimal education, but physical skills.
• Education can also improve interpersonal skills and lower turnover

Job Valuation Factors

• Intrinsic factors can outweigh extrinsic factors
• Canadians hold diverse views on valuation
• There can be both income and gender disparities
• High paying jobs can be higher ranked even with similar levels of education

Labour Market Structure & Theory - Human Capital Theory

• Theory established by Gary Becker in the 1960s
• It assumes a single open labor market where participants have necessary skills, but the theory has signifact limitations due to the fact that not all are fully aware of job opps
• luck also plays a massive role
• recessions drastically change avilability

Labour Market Segmentation

• Theory that critiques HC theory by saying separate markets have unique conditions
• Primary / Core Sector include high benefits
• Lower is periphery roles include precarious poor conditions.
• Workers face issues of a lack of cultural / educational capital that limit positions

Minimum Wage Debate

• Can serve as income stimulus
• Has potential to increase costs
• can hurt small businesses

Protection

Professional association: regulate license and often prioritize their own members