Welding Definition and History
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Questions and Answers

What was metal powder culling initially introduced for?

  • Cutting cast iron
  • Cutting stainless steel (correct)
  • Cutting alloy steels
  • Cutting bronze

    • What is the benefit of using powder cutting in stack cutting?

  • It doesn't require preheat from an ordinary flame (correct)
  • It reduces the amount of smoke generated
  • It can only be used for a specific type of steel
  • It is only useful for shallow plates

    • What is the purpose of the chemical flux in the oxygen-cutting process?

  • To reduce the amount of smoke generated
  • To combine with the refractory oxides and make them a soluble compound (correct)
  • To increase the temperature of the cut
  • To reduce the amount of oxygen required

    • How is the flux supplied to the oxygen stream in the flux cutting process?

    <p>Through a hose leading from a hopper</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done to avoid clogging in the flux cutting process?

    <p>Ensure the hoses have no sharp bends</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of steel is not recommended for cutting using the chemical flux cutting process?

    <p>15 Cr 35Ni steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is chemical flux cutting losing its industrial importance?

    <p>Due to the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the initial step in the flux cutting process?

    <p>Heating the initiating point of cut to white heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What should be done to halt the flux cutting operation?

    <p>Close the flux-supply valve and then the other torch valves</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended distance between the flux-supply and the cutting area?

    <p>10 m</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following materials cannot be cut using metal powder culling?

    <p>Titanium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main advantage of powder cutting over ordinary flame cutting?

    <p>Ability to cut through separations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using powder cutting?

    <p>Smoke generation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the chemical flux in the oxygen-cutting process?

    <p>To remove oxides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following materials is not suitable for cutting using the chemical flux cutting process?

    <p>15 Cr 35Ni steel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the decline of chemical flux cutting in industrial applications?

    <p>Development of more efficient methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical flow rate of the flux in oxygen stream during flux cutting?

    <p>0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of moving the torch along the line of the cut during flux cutting?

    <p>To complete the cut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended positioning of the flux-supply during flux cutting?

    <p>10 m away from the cutting area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following processes can be used for gouging and scarfing?

    <p>Metal powder culling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of the metal powder culling process?

    <p>Gouging and scarfing in steel mills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the oxygen in the powder cutting process?

    <p>To react with the metal powder to complete the cut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concern when using the chemical flux cutting process?

    <p>Avoiding clogging in the hoses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using powder cutting over ordinary flame cutting?

    <p>It can cut through separations between plates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the chemical flux in the oxygen-cutting process?

    <p>To combine with the refractory oxides and make them a soluble compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the recommended flow rate of the flux in oxygen stream during flux cutting?

    <p>0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the decline of chemical flux cutting in industrial applications?

    <p>The development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of the chemical flux cutting process?

    <p>Cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper, brass, and bronze</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of heating the initiating point of cut to white heat in the flux cutting process?

    <p>To initiate the cutting process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of powder cutting over flame cutting?

    <p>It can complete the cut even across separations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of metal powder culling over ordinary flame cutting?

    <p>It can cut across separations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of chemical flux cutting?

    <p>Cutting cast iron and certain alloys</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is it important to remove smoke during powder cutting?

    <p>To avoid interference with other operations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of oxygen in powder cutting?

    <p>It reacts with the metal powder to complete the cut</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is chemical flux cutting slowly losing its industrial importance?

    <p>Due to the development of more efficient methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common application of metal powder culling and chemical flux cutting?

    <p>Cutting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of heating the initiating point of cut to white heat in flux cutting?

    <p>To start the cutting process</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of materials can be gouged and scarfed using metal powder culling?

    <p>Billets, blooms, and slabs in steel mills</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the flux in the oxygen-cutting process?

    <p>To combine with the refractory oxides and make them a soluble compound</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common challenge when using powder cutting?

    <p>Generating too much smoke</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Welding Definition and History

    • Welding is the process of joining two metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
    • Welding has been developing over a century, with the first recorded application of welding dating back to the "Bronze Age" where parts were joined by forge welding to produce tools, weapons, and ornaments.
    • The first application of welding with carbon electrode was developed in 1885, while metal arc welding with bare electrode was patented in 1890.

    Types of Welding Processes

    • Fusion welding: where molten metal solidifies freely
    • Pressure welding: where molten metal, if any, is retained in a confined space under pressure
    • Arc welding: applies heat generated by an electric arc for melting the faying surfaces of the base metal
    • Forge welding: a solid-state welding process in which both plates are heated quite below their melting temperature and then subjected to high pressure or hammering to create a weld joint

    Classification of Welding Processes

    • Based on the use of filler material
    • Based on the source of energy
    • Based on Arc and Non-arc welding
    • Based on Fusion and Pressure welding (most widely used)

    Applications of Welding

    • Fabrication of pressure vessels
    • Bridge construction
    • Shipbuilding
    • Aircraft and spacecraft construction
    • Railway coaches and general applications
    • Automobiles
    • Electrical, electronic, and defense industries
    • Nuclear installations
    • Micro-joining

    Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

    • Developed in 1935
    • Uses a consumable electrode covered in a flux to protect the arc and molten metal

    Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

    • Developed in 1948
    • Uses a continuous wire electrode and shielding gas to protect the arc
    • Can be used for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals
    • High deposition rate and versatility over a wide range of thicknesses and welding positions

    Welding Symbols

    • Used to communicate information about welding procedure without ambiguity
    • Symbols are used to show the type of weld to be made, size and location of weld, welding process, edge preparation, bead geometry, and weld inspection process

    Types of Weld Joints

    • Butt joint: plates are in the same horizontal plane and aligned with a maximum deviation of 50
    • Lap joint: plates overlap each other
    • Corner joint: joint is made by melting corners of two plates
    • Edge joint: joint is made by melting the edges of two plates
    • T joint: one plate is approximately perpendicular to another plate

    Types of Welds

    • Groove weld: a weld that is made in a groove between two plates
    • Fillet weld: a weld that is made on the corner of two plates
    • Plug weld: a weld that is made by filling a hole in one plate with molten metal
    • Bead on plate weld: a weld that is made on the surface of a single plate### Resistance Welding
    • Resistance welding is a pressure welding process that uses heavy current to generate heat at the interface of two metals, without using fluxes or filler metals.
    • The process is automatic, and all process variables are preset and maintained constant.
    • Heat is generated by the expression H = I²Rt, where H is the heat generated, I is the current, R is the resistance of the area being welded, and t is the time for the flow of current.
    • The process employs high currents (few kA), voltages (2-12V), and times (few ms to few seconds).
    • Force is applied before, during, and after the flow of current to avoid arcing and to forge the weld metal during post-heating.

    Spot Welding

    • In spot welding, two or more sheets of metal are held between electrodes, and current is supplied for a definite time to generate heat.
    • The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.2.
    • The welding cycle involves the upper electrode moving and contacting the workpieces, applying pressure, and then passing heavy current for a preset time.
    • The area of metals in contact is rapidly raised to welding temperature, and the pressure squeezes the hot metal together to complete the weld.

    Seam Welding

    • In seam welding, overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes, and current is passed to obtain a continuous or intermittent seam.
    • The process of welding is illustrated in Figure 11.5.
    • Types of seam welds include overlapping weld nuggets, which may vary from 10 to 50%.
    • Seam welding is a fast method of welding, producing quality welds, but the equipment is costly and maintenance is expensive.

    Projection Welding

    • In projection welding, projections are little raised points that offer resistance during the passage of current, generating heat.
    • The operation is performed on a press welding machine, and components are put between water-cooled copper platens under pressure.
    • The projections can be generated by press working or machining on one part, or by putting an external member between two parts.
    • No consumables are required in projection welding.

    Production of Seam Welded Tubes

    • Seam welded tubes are produced by resistance seam welding.
    • The process involves wrapping a strip around a spool, forming the shape of the tube, and then seam welding the edges.
    • The flash out is trimmed, and the tubes are cut to required size.

    Thermit Welding

    • Thermit welding is a chemical welding process that uses an exothermic chemical reaction to supply heat energy.
    • The reaction involves the burning of Thermit, a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide, which reacts to form pure iron and slag.
    • The process involves preparing the joint, pouring wax into the joint, creating a mould, and then pouring the Thermit mixture into the mould.
    • The advantages of Thermit welding include its simplicity, speed, and low cost, but it is limited to welding heavy sections.

    Plasma Arc Welding

    • Plasma arc welding is an advanced version of TIG welding that uses a high-velocity plasma arc to melt the metal.
    • The process is characterized by high energy density, low heat input, and reduced problems associated with the weld thermal cycle.
    • The advantages of PAW include its ability to weld thin sheets, reduced angular distortion, and lower residual stress.
    • The limitations of PAW include its complexity, high cost, and generation of high noise levels.

    Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting

    • Oxy-fuel gas cutting is a thermal cutting process that uses a high-pressure oxygen jet to cut steel plates.
    • The process involves preheating a small zone to the kindling temperature of the material, and then making the oxygen jet impinge on the hot metal.
    • The reaction between the oxygen and metal generates heat, which is used to cut the metal.
    • The width of the cut is referred to as the KERF, which is a function of oxygen hole size, flow rate, speed of cutting, and the nature of the material.### Powder Cutting
    • Used for cutting cast iron, chromium-nickel, stainless steel, and some high alloy steels
    • Working principle: injection of metal powder into the oxygen stream, which is heated by oxy-acetylene preheat flames, igniting and providing high temperature for cutting
    • Powder is carried to the cutting torch by compressed air or nitrogen
    • Cutting speeds and oxygen pressures are similar to those for cutting mild steel
    • Flow rates: 0.10 to 0.25 kg of iron powder per minute of cutting
    • Leaves a scale on the cut surface, which can be easily removed on cooling
    • Can be used for cutting alloy steels, bronze, nickel, aluminum, steel mill ladle spills, certain refractories, and concrete
    • Also used for gouging and scarfing, and stack cutting

    Chemical Flux Cutting

    • Involves injecting a chemical flux into the oxygen stream
    • Flux combines with refractory oxides to form a soluble compound
    • Chemical fluxes may be salts of sodium, such as sodium carbonate
    • Flux is sucked from a hopper at the rate of 0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute
    • Procedure: heating the initiating point of cut to white heat, opening the cutting oxygen valve, and leading the flux in oxygen stream to the torch
    • Can be used for cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper, brass, and bronze
    • Not recommended for cutting high-nickel type steels, such as 15 Cr 35Ni steel
    • Losing industrial importance due to the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting

    Welding Definition and History

    • Welding is the process of joining two metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
    • Welding has been developing over a century, with the first recorded application of welding dating back to the "Bronze Age" where parts were joined by forge welding to produce tools, weapons, and ornaments.
    • The first application of welding with carbon electrode was developed in 1885, while metal arc welding with bare electrode was patented in 1890.

    Types of Welding Processes

    • Fusion welding: where molten metal solidifies freely
    • Pressure welding: where molten metal, if any, is retained in a confined space under pressure
    • Arc welding: applies heat generated by an electric arc for melting the faying surfaces of the base metal
    • Forge welding: a solid-state welding process in which both plates are heated quite below their melting temperature and then subjected to high pressure or hammering to create a weld joint

    Classification of Welding Processes

    • Based on the use of filler material
    • Based on the source of energy
    • Based on Arc and Non-arc welding
    • Based on Fusion and Pressure welding (most widely used)

    Applications of Welding

    • Fabrication of pressure vessels
    • Bridge construction
    • Shipbuilding
    • Aircraft and spacecraft construction
    • Railway coaches and general applications
    • Automobiles
    • Electrical, electronic, and defense industries
    • Nuclear installations
    • Micro-joining

    Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

    • Developed in 1935
    • Uses a consumable electrode covered in a flux to protect the arc and molten metal

    Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

    • Developed in 1948
    • Uses a continuous wire electrode and shielding gas to protect the arc
    • Can be used for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals
    • High deposition rate and versatility over a wide range of thicknesses and welding positions

    Welding Symbols

    • Used to communicate information about welding procedure without ambiguity
    • Symbols are used to show the type of weld to be made, size and location of weld, welding process, edge preparation, bead geometry, and weld inspection process

    Types of Weld Joints

    • Butt joint: plates are in the same horizontal plane and aligned with a maximum deviation of 50
    • Lap joint: plates overlap each other
    • Corner joint: joint is made by melting corners of two plates
    • Edge joint: joint is made by melting the edges of two plates
    • T joint: one plate is approximately perpendicular to another plate

    Types of Welds

    • Groove weld: a weld that is made in a groove between two plates
    • Fillet weld: a weld that is made on the corner of two plates
    • Plug weld: a weld that is made by filling a hole in one plate with molten metal
    • Bead on plate weld: a weld that is made on the surface of a single plate### Resistance Welding
    • Resistance welding is a pressure welding process that uses heavy current to generate heat at the interface of two metals, without using fluxes or filler metals.
    • The process is automatic, and all process variables are preset and maintained constant.
    • Heat is generated by the expression H = I²Rt, where H is the heat generated, I is the current, R is the resistance of the area being welded, and t is the time for the flow of current.
    • The process employs high currents (few kA), voltages (2-12V), and times (few ms to few seconds).
    • Force is applied before, during, and after the flow of current to avoid arcing and to forge the weld metal during post-heating.

    Spot Welding

    • In spot welding, two or more sheets of metal are held between electrodes, and current is supplied for a definite time to generate heat.
    • The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.2.
    • The welding cycle involves the upper electrode moving and contacting the workpieces, applying pressure, and then passing heavy current for a preset time.
    • The area of metals in contact is rapidly raised to welding temperature, and the pressure squeezes the hot metal together to complete the weld.

    Seam Welding

    • In seam welding, overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes, and current is passed to obtain a continuous or intermittent seam.
    • The process of welding is illustrated in Figure 11.5.
    • Types of seam welds include overlapping weld nuggets, which may vary from 10 to 50%.
    • Seam welding is a fast method of welding, producing quality welds, but the equipment is costly and maintenance is expensive.

    Projection Welding

    • In projection welding, projections are little raised points that offer resistance during the passage of current, generating heat.
    • The operation is performed on a press welding machine, and components are put between water-cooled copper platens under pressure.
    • The projections can be generated by press working or machining on one part, or by putting an external member between two parts.
    • No consumables are required in projection welding.

    Production of Seam Welded Tubes

    • Seam welded tubes are produced by resistance seam welding.
    • The process involves wrapping a strip around a spool, forming the shape of the tube, and then seam welding the edges.
    • The flash out is trimmed, and the tubes are cut to required size.

    Thermit Welding

    • Thermit welding is a chemical welding process that uses an exothermic chemical reaction to supply heat energy.
    • The reaction involves the burning of Thermit, a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide, which reacts to form pure iron and slag.
    • The process involves preparing the joint, pouring wax into the joint, creating a mould, and then pouring the Thermit mixture into the mould.
    • The advantages of Thermit welding include its simplicity, speed, and low cost, but it is limited to welding heavy sections.

    Plasma Arc Welding

    • Plasma arc welding is an advanced version of TIG welding that uses a high-velocity plasma arc to melt the metal.
    • The process is characterized by high energy density, low heat input, and reduced problems associated with the weld thermal cycle.
    • The advantages of PAW include its ability to weld thin sheets, reduced angular distortion, and lower residual stress.
    • The limitations of PAW include its complexity, high cost, and generation of high noise levels.

    Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting

    • Oxy-fuel gas cutting is a thermal cutting process that uses a high-pressure oxygen jet to cut steel plates.
    • The process involves preheating a small zone to the kindling temperature of the material, and then making the oxygen jet impinge on the hot metal.
    • The reaction between the oxygen and metal generates heat, which is used to cut the metal.
    • The width of the cut is referred to as the KERF, which is a function of oxygen hole size, flow rate, speed of cutting, and the nature of the material.### Powder Cutting
    • Used for cutting cast iron, chromium-nickel, stainless steel, and some high alloy steels
    • Working principle: injection of metal powder into the oxygen stream, which is heated by oxy-acetylene preheat flames, igniting and providing high temperature for cutting
    • Powder is carried to the cutting torch by compressed air or nitrogen
    • Cutting speeds and oxygen pressures are similar to those for cutting mild steel
    • Flow rates: 0.10 to 0.25 kg of iron powder per minute of cutting
    • Leaves a scale on the cut surface, which can be easily removed on cooling
    • Can be used for cutting alloy steels, bronze, nickel, aluminum, steel mill ladle spills, certain refractories, and concrete
    • Also used for gouging and scarfing, and stack cutting

    Chemical Flux Cutting

    • Involves injecting a chemical flux into the oxygen stream
    • Flux combines with refractory oxides to form a soluble compound
    • Chemical fluxes may be salts of sodium, such as sodium carbonate
    • Flux is sucked from a hopper at the rate of 0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute
    • Procedure: heating the initiating point of cut to white heat, opening the cutting oxygen valve, and leading the flux in oxygen stream to the torch
    • Can be used for cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper, brass, and bronze
    • Not recommended for cutting high-nickel type steels, such as 15 Cr 35Ni steel
    • Losing industrial importance due to the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting

    Welding Definition and History

    • Welding is the process of joining two metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
    • Welding has been developing over a century, with the first recorded application of welding dating back to the "Bronze Age" where parts were joined by forge welding to produce tools, weapons, and ornaments.
    • The first application of welding with carbon electrode was developed in 1885, while metal arc welding with bare electrode was patented in 1890.

    Types of Welding Processes

    • Fusion welding: where molten metal solidifies freely
    • Pressure welding: where molten metal, if any, is retained in a confined space under pressure
    • Arc welding: applies heat generated by an electric arc for melting the faying surfaces of the base metal
    • Forge welding: a solid-state welding process in which both plates are heated quite below their melting temperature and then subjected to high pressure or hammering to create a weld joint

    Classification of Welding Processes

    • Based on the use of filler material
    • Based on the source of energy
    • Based on Arc and Non-arc welding
    • Based on Fusion and Pressure welding (most widely used)

    Applications of Welding

    • Fabrication of pressure vessels
    • Bridge construction
    • Shipbuilding
    • Aircraft and spacecraft construction
    • Railway coaches and general applications
    • Automobiles
    • Electrical, electronic, and defense industries
    • Nuclear installations
    • Micro-joining

    Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

    • Developed in 1935
    • Uses a consumable electrode covered in a flux to protect the arc and molten metal

    Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

    • Developed in 1948
    • Uses a continuous wire electrode and shielding gas to protect the arc
    • Can be used for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals
    • High deposition rate and versatility over a wide range of thicknesses and welding positions

    Welding Symbols

    • Used to communicate information about welding procedure without ambiguity
    • Symbols are used to show the type of weld to be made, size and location of weld, welding process, edge preparation, bead geometry, and weld inspection process

    Types of Weld Joints

    • Butt joint: plates are in the same horizontal plane and aligned with a maximum deviation of 50
    • Lap joint: plates overlap each other
    • Corner joint: joint is made by melting corners of two plates
    • Edge joint: joint is made by melting the edges of two plates
    • T joint: one plate is approximately perpendicular to another plate

    Types of Welds

    • Groove weld: a weld that is made in a groove between two plates
    • Fillet weld: a weld that is made on the corner of two plates
    • Plug weld: a weld that is made by filling a hole in one plate with molten metal
    • Bead on plate weld: a weld that is made on the surface of a single plate### Resistance Welding
    • Resistance welding is a pressure welding process that uses heavy current to generate heat at the interface of two metals, without using fluxes or filler metals.
    • The process is automatic, and all process variables are preset and maintained constant.
    • Heat is generated by the expression H = I²Rt, where H is the heat generated, I is the current, R is the resistance of the area being welded, and t is the time for the flow of current.
    • The process employs high currents (few kA), voltages (2-12V), and times (few ms to few seconds).
    • Force is applied before, during, and after the flow of current to avoid arcing and to forge the weld metal during post-heating.

    Spot Welding

    • In spot welding, two or more sheets of metal are held between electrodes, and current is supplied for a definite time to generate heat.
    • The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.2.
    • The welding cycle involves the upper electrode moving and contacting the workpieces, applying pressure, and then passing heavy current for a preset time.
    • The area of metals in contact is rapidly raised to welding temperature, and the pressure squeezes the hot metal together to complete the weld.

    Seam Welding

    • In seam welding, overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes, and current is passed to obtain a continuous or intermittent seam.
    • The process of welding is illustrated in Figure 11.5.
    • Types of seam welds include overlapping weld nuggets, which may vary from 10 to 50%.
    • Seam welding is a fast method of welding, producing quality welds, but the equipment is costly and maintenance is expensive.

    Projection Welding

    • In projection welding, projections are little raised points that offer resistance during the passage of current, generating heat.
    • The operation is performed on a press welding machine, and components are put between water-cooled copper platens under pressure.
    • The projections can be generated by press working or machining on one part, or by putting an external member between two parts.
    • No consumables are required in projection welding.

    Production of Seam Welded Tubes

    • Seam welded tubes are produced by resistance seam welding.
    • The process involves wrapping a strip around a spool, forming the shape of the tube, and then seam welding the edges.
    • The flash out is trimmed, and the tubes are cut to required size.

    Thermit Welding

    • Thermit welding is a chemical welding process that uses an exothermic chemical reaction to supply heat energy.
    • The reaction involves the burning of Thermit, a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide, which reacts to form pure iron and slag.
    • The process involves preparing the joint, pouring wax into the joint, creating a mould, and then pouring the Thermit mixture into the mould.
    • The advantages of Thermit welding include its simplicity, speed, and low cost, but it is limited to welding heavy sections.

    Plasma Arc Welding

    • Plasma arc welding is an advanced version of TIG welding that uses a high-velocity plasma arc to melt the metal.
    • The process is characterized by high energy density, low heat input, and reduced problems associated with the weld thermal cycle.
    • The advantages of PAW include its ability to weld thin sheets, reduced angular distortion, and lower residual stress.
    • The limitations of PAW include its complexity, high cost, and generation of high noise levels.

    Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting

    • Oxy-fuel gas cutting is a thermal cutting process that uses a high-pressure oxygen jet to cut steel plates.
    • The process involves preheating a small zone to the kindling temperature of the material, and then making the oxygen jet impinge on the hot metal.
    • The reaction between the oxygen and metal generates heat, which is used to cut the metal.
    • The width of the cut is referred to as the KERF, which is a function of oxygen hole size, flow rate, speed of cutting, and the nature of the material.### Powder Cutting
    • Used for cutting cast iron, chromium-nickel, stainless steel, and some high alloy steels
    • Working principle: injection of metal powder into the oxygen stream, which is heated by oxy-acetylene preheat flames, igniting and providing high temperature for cutting
    • Powder is carried to the cutting torch by compressed air or nitrogen
    • Cutting speeds and oxygen pressures are similar to those for cutting mild steel
    • Flow rates: 0.10 to 0.25 kg of iron powder per minute of cutting
    • Leaves a scale on the cut surface, which can be easily removed on cooling
    • Can be used for cutting alloy steels, bronze, nickel, aluminum, steel mill ladle spills, certain refractories, and concrete
    • Also used for gouging and scarfing, and stack cutting

    Chemical Flux Cutting

    • Involves injecting a chemical flux into the oxygen stream
    • Flux combines with refractory oxides to form a soluble compound
    • Chemical fluxes may be salts of sodium, such as sodium carbonate
    • Flux is sucked from a hopper at the rate of 0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute
    • Procedure: heating the initiating point of cut to white heat, opening the cutting oxygen valve, and leading the flux in oxygen stream to the torch
    • Can be used for cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper, brass, and bronze
    • Not recommended for cutting high-nickel type steels, such as 15 Cr 35Ni steel
    • Losing industrial importance due to the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting

    Welding Definition and History

    • Welding is the process of joining two metallic components with the application of heat, with or without the application of pressure and with or without the use of filler metal.
    • Welding has been developing over a century, with the first recorded application of welding dating back to the "Bronze Age" where parts were joined by forge welding to produce tools, weapons, and ornaments.
    • The first application of welding with carbon electrode was developed in 1885, while metal arc welding with bare electrode was patented in 1890.

    Types of Welding Processes

    • Fusion welding: where molten metal solidifies freely
    • Pressure welding: where molten metal, if any, is retained in a confined space under pressure
    • Arc welding: applies heat generated by an electric arc for melting the faying surfaces of the base metal
    • Forge welding: a solid-state welding process in which both plates are heated quite below their melting temperature and then subjected to high pressure or hammering to create a weld joint

    Classification of Welding Processes

    • Based on the use of filler material
    • Based on the source of energy
    • Based on Arc and Non-arc welding
    • Based on Fusion and Pressure welding (most widely used)

    Applications of Welding

    • Fabrication of pressure vessels
    • Bridge construction
    • Shipbuilding
    • Aircraft and spacecraft construction
    • Railway coaches and general applications
    • Automobiles
    • Electrical, electronic, and defense industries
    • Nuclear installations
    • Micro-joining

    Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)

    • Developed in 1935
    • Uses a consumable electrode covered in a flux to protect the arc and molten metal

    Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

    • Developed in 1948
    • Uses a continuous wire electrode and shielding gas to protect the arc
    • Can be used for welding ferrous and nonferrous metals
    • High deposition rate and versatility over a wide range of thicknesses and welding positions

    Welding Symbols

    • Used to communicate information about welding procedure without ambiguity
    • Symbols are used to show the type of weld to be made, size and location of weld, welding process, edge preparation, bead geometry, and weld inspection process

    Types of Weld Joints

    • Butt joint: plates are in the same horizontal plane and aligned with a maximum deviation of 50
    • Lap joint: plates overlap each other
    • Corner joint: joint is made by melting corners of two plates
    • Edge joint: joint is made by melting the edges of two plates
    • T joint: one plate is approximately perpendicular to another plate

    Types of Welds

    • Groove weld: a weld that is made in a groove between two plates
    • Fillet weld: a weld that is made on the corner of two plates
    • Plug weld: a weld that is made by filling a hole in one plate with molten metal
    • Bead on plate weld: a weld that is made on the surface of a single plate### Resistance Welding
    • Resistance welding is a pressure welding process that uses heavy current to generate heat at the interface of two metals, without using fluxes or filler metals.
    • The process is automatic, and all process variables are preset and maintained constant.
    • Heat is generated by the expression H = I²Rt, where H is the heat generated, I is the current, R is the resistance of the area being welded, and t is the time for the flow of current.
    • The process employs high currents (few kA), voltages (2-12V), and times (few ms to few seconds).
    • Force is applied before, during, and after the flow of current to avoid arcing and to forge the weld metal during post-heating.

    Spot Welding

    • In spot welding, two or more sheets of metal are held between electrodes, and current is supplied for a definite time to generate heat.
    • The principle is illustrated in Figure 11.2.
    • The welding cycle involves the upper electrode moving and contacting the workpieces, applying pressure, and then passing heavy current for a preset time.
    • The area of metals in contact is rapidly raised to welding temperature, and the pressure squeezes the hot metal together to complete the weld.

    Seam Welding

    • In seam welding, overlapping sheets are gripped between two wheels or roller disc electrodes, and current is passed to obtain a continuous or intermittent seam.
    • The process of welding is illustrated in Figure 11.5.
    • Types of seam welds include overlapping weld nuggets, which may vary from 10 to 50%.
    • Seam welding is a fast method of welding, producing quality welds, but the equipment is costly and maintenance is expensive.

    Projection Welding

    • In projection welding, projections are little raised points that offer resistance during the passage of current, generating heat.
    • The operation is performed on a press welding machine, and components are put between water-cooled copper platens under pressure.
    • The projections can be generated by press working or machining on one part, or by putting an external member between two parts.
    • No consumables are required in projection welding.

    Production of Seam Welded Tubes

    • Seam welded tubes are produced by resistance seam welding.
    • The process involves wrapping a strip around a spool, forming the shape of the tube, and then seam welding the edges.
    • The flash out is trimmed, and the tubes are cut to required size.

    Thermit Welding

    • Thermit welding is a chemical welding process that uses an exothermic chemical reaction to supply heat energy.
    • The reaction involves the burning of Thermit, a mixture of fine aluminum powder and iron oxide, which reacts to form pure iron and slag.
    • The process involves preparing the joint, pouring wax into the joint, creating a mould, and then pouring the Thermit mixture into the mould.
    • The advantages of Thermit welding include its simplicity, speed, and low cost, but it is limited to welding heavy sections.

    Plasma Arc Welding

    • Plasma arc welding is an advanced version of TIG welding that uses a high-velocity plasma arc to melt the metal.
    • The process is characterized by high energy density, low heat input, and reduced problems associated with the weld thermal cycle.
    • The advantages of PAW include its ability to weld thin sheets, reduced angular distortion, and lower residual stress.
    • The limitations of PAW include its complexity, high cost, and generation of high noise levels.

    Oxy-Fuel Gas Cutting

    • Oxy-fuel gas cutting is a thermal cutting process that uses a high-pressure oxygen jet to cut steel plates.
    • The process involves preheating a small zone to the kindling temperature of the material, and then making the oxygen jet impinge on the hot metal.
    • The reaction between the oxygen and metal generates heat, which is used to cut the metal.
    • The width of the cut is referred to as the KERF, which is a function of oxygen hole size, flow rate, speed of cutting, and the nature of the material.### Powder Cutting
    • Used for cutting cast iron, chromium-nickel, stainless steel, and some high alloy steels
    • Working principle: injection of metal powder into the oxygen stream, which is heated by oxy-acetylene preheat flames, igniting and providing high temperature for cutting
    • Powder is carried to the cutting torch by compressed air or nitrogen
    • Cutting speeds and oxygen pressures are similar to those for cutting mild steel
    • Flow rates: 0.10 to 0.25 kg of iron powder per minute of cutting
    • Leaves a scale on the cut surface, which can be easily removed on cooling
    • Can be used for cutting alloy steels, bronze, nickel, aluminum, steel mill ladle spills, certain refractories, and concrete
    • Also used for gouging and scarfing, and stack cutting

    Chemical Flux Cutting

    • Involves injecting a chemical flux into the oxygen stream
    • Flux combines with refractory oxides to form a soluble compound
    • Chemical fluxes may be salts of sodium, such as sodium carbonate
    • Flux is sucked from a hopper at the rate of 0.06 to 0.30 kg per minute
    • Procedure: heating the initiating point of cut to white heat, opening the cutting oxygen valve, and leading the flux in oxygen stream to the torch
    • Can be used for cutting cast iron, chromium-steel, chromium-nickel steel, copper, brass, and bronze
    • Not recommended for cutting high-nickel type steels, such as 15 Cr 35Ni steel
    • Losing industrial importance due to the development of more efficient methods like plasma cutting

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    Learn about the process of welding, its definition, and its history dating back to the Bronze Age.

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