Voyages of Discovery

Voyages of Discovery

• Between the 7th and 14th centuries, Arab traders dominated East-West trade, using India/Bharat as a source for spices, textiles, sugar, indigo, and saltpetre, shipping these goods via the Persian Gulf and Red Sea before being transported to Europe by land
• Constantinople, capital of the Byzantine Empire, fell to the Turks in 1453, disrupting Arab trade routes to Europe, making it necessary for Europeans to find a direct sea route to the East
• European explorers, sponsored by Portugal, Spain, and Britain, undertook a series of voyages
• Vasco da Gama, a Portuguese explorer, was the first European to discover a direct sea route to India, landing in Kozhikode (Calicut) on India's western coast in 1498
• Direct trade routes emerged between the West and the East as a result of these voyages
• The Portuguese became the first Europeans to establish a trading base in India, replacing Arab dominance in the Indian Ocean, with the Dutch, British, and French soon following

Formation of European Trading Companies in India

• Rival European countries realized the great potential wealth in trade with India
• Individual traders in each country formed trading companies that their respective governments supported
• The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French trading companies were formed
• These companies established trading stations along the eastern and western coasts of India and competed for control over the lucrative trade with India
• After Spain conquered Portugal in 1580, the Portuguese lost their possessions in India
• The Dutch shifted focus to their possessions in the East Indies (Indonesia)
• The British and the French became the main competitors in India, their conflict in Europe fueled their efforts to gain supremacy in India

The British Conquest of India

• The English East India Company (EEIC) was founded in London in 1600, by traders solely to trade with India
• Queen Elizabeth I granted the Company the exclusive right to trade with India for a share of the profits
• This meant no other English trader or company could compete with the East India Company
• The Company aimed to eliminate competition from other European companies

Mercantilism

• Establishing monopolies was a main aim of countries that followed mercantilism
• Mercantilism allowed countries to buy goods cheaply and sell them expensively

Relations between Britain and India

• King James I of England sent Sir Thomas Roe to Jahangir's court in 1615 to seek a trade agreement
• Roe's efforts set the stage for a centuries-long relationship between the English East India Company and the Mughals
• British trade increased, so did their power
• The British established large trading posts in India, some with fortified settlements
• The British wanted political control over India, not just trade
• The British used warfare, the System of Subsidiary Alliance, and annexations to gain control

Wars

• Wars became a main method the British used to establish rule in India
• The British first fought the French to become the main European power and then targeted Indian rulers to capture their kingdoms through warfare

The Conquest of the Carnatic (The Trade Wars)

• Conflict between France and Britain was focused in the Carnatic region (southeastern India)
• Hyderabad, Carnatic, and Mysore were in constant conflict
• The French and British allied with rival groups of Indian rulers
• Three wars between 1746 and 1763, called the Trade Wars or Carnatic Wars were fought
• The British defeated the French, becoming the main European power in India
• Having a foothold in south India, the British turned their attention towards Bengal

The Conquest of Bengal

• Bengal included Bangladesh, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha
• Bengal was one of the richest Indian provinces for textiles and handicrafts
• The East India Company gained the right from the Mughal emperor to trade in Bengal without paying customs duties, and issued dastaks, or trade permits
• Company officials misused dastaks, causing significant revenue loss for Bengal's rulers and amassed fortunes
• They fortified their factory at Fort William in Calcutta causing the Nawab of Bengal, Sirajuddaulah, to attack and occupy Fort William in 1756
• Robert Clive commanded British troops and reached Calcutta from recent victories in the Carnatic, retook Fort William in 1757, and declared war on Sirajuddaulah

Outcome and Impact of the Battle of Plassey

• Clive conspired with Mir Jafar, the Nawab's commander, to make Mir Jafar the Nawab of Bengal if he helped defeat Sirajuddaulah
• The armies met at Plassey in 1757
• Mir Jafar betrayed Sirajuddaulah who fled, Clive victory
• Mir Jafar became Nawab of Bengal
• When Mir Jafar tried to control the corrupt British trading practices, he was replaced by his son-in-law, Mir Qasim, in 1760
• Mir Qasim granted the British the right to collect revenues from Burdwan, Midnapur and Chittagong
• The British now controlled the Nawab of Bengal, making sure that through him they controlled the wealthiest provinces of India
• The Battle of Plassey paved the way for British rule in India.

The Battle of Buxar

• Mir Qasim also soon grew tired of British control and sought power
• He allied with Shujauddaula, (the Nawab of Awadh), and Shah Alam II (the Mughal emperor)
• In 1764, combined forces fought British at Battle of Buxar
• The British won

Treaty of Allahabad

• Mir Qasim fled after the Battle of Buxar
• Others signed the Treaty of Allahabad with the British
• The emperor granted the diwani of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa (Odisha) to the British, giving the British the right to collect revenue and administer justice in this region

System of Dual Governance

• Mir Jafar was brought back as Nawab of Bengal
• Administration of the province became the Nawab's responsibility and revenue from the land went to the British
• This was the System of Dual Government
• Because the Nawab lacked needed resources and the British used resources for personal gain instead of bettering Bengal, the system ruined Bengal
• Warren Hastings became governor of Bengal, abolished the System of Dual Governance

Impact and Outcome of the Conquest of Bengal

• With the conquest of Bengal, the first phase of British conquest of India ended
• The British essentially ruled Bengal, Bihar, and Odisha
• The nawabs of Awadh and Carnatic were their dependents, and the Mughal Emperor was their pensioner
• The British shifted focus to Mysore

The Conquest of Mysore—The Anglo-Mysore Wars (1766–1799)

• Mysore opposed British power in south India
• In 1761, Hyder Ali seized power from Mysore's ruler, Chikka Krishna Raj
• Under Hyder Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan, Mysore became a powerful kingdom
• Competition with the rising power of Hyder Ali began when the British took interest in the Carnatic
• From 1766 to 1799, 4 battles were fought between the British and the Kingdom of Mysore, the Anglo-Mysore Wars
• In 1799, Tipu was defeated by the British at Seringapatam in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War and died fighting
• The British annexed half his kingdom and gave the rest of Mysore back to the royal family, making sure they ensured their loyalty

The Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775–1818)

• The British wanted to subjugate the Marathas
• The Marathas had become one of the most powerful forces in India in the mid-18th century
• Under Chhattrapati Shivaji and later the Peshwas, the Marathas challenged the Mughals
• The Maratha ambition to build an empire over India was setback when they were defeated by Afghan ruler Ahmad Shah Abdali in the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761
• Four Maratha power centers emerged that included the Gaekwads, the Bhonsles, the Holkars, and the Scindias (Sindhias)
• The Marathas took on the British in encounters called the Anglo-Maratha Wars (1775-1818)
• The British took advantage of infighting among the Maratha chiefs and defeated the Marathas in the Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-1819)
• The post of the Peshwa was abolished
• Large parts of the Maratha kingdom were annexed, virtually leading to the end of Maratha rule in India

The Conquest of Punjab—The Anglo-Sikh Wars (1845-1849)

• Taking advantage of the declining Mughal Empire, the Sikhs established a powerful empire in the 18th century under Maharaja Ranjit Singh
• Ranjit Singh maintained a friendly relationship with the British
• After Ranjit Singh death in 1839, the Khalsa (a community of Sikh warriors) became powerful and distrustful of the British
• The First Anglo-Sikh War was fought between 1845 and 1846
• The Sikhs were defeated and the land by the rivers Beas and Sutlej was annexed by the British
• Anger led to the Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)
• After the war, Punjab became a dependent state of the British, and its ruler Duleep Singh was pensioned off

The System of Subsidiary Alliances

• Lord Wellesley, made Britain important in India with the system of subsidiary alliances of various states
• Indian rulers entering the System of Subsidiary Alliance had to either maintain British troops in their state, by providing land or by paying for the troop maintenance
• The system allowed the British to maintain a large army at the expense of local rulers and also greatly controlling the rulers
• The Indian ruler could not fight or sign treaties with any other power without the approval of the British
• Rulers joining the system like the Nizam of Hyderabad and the Nawab of Awadh, got security as a result but they lost their independence
• Other states that joined included the Marathas (after the Third Maratha War), the princely state of Travancore and most of the Rajput states

Annexations

• Annexation means taking control of a state or territory with the use of force
• The British annexed several states on the basis of the Doctrine of Lapse and misrule

The Doctrine of Lapse

• The Doctrine of Lapse was implemented by Governor-General Dalhousie
• Traditionally in India, adopting a child as an heir for rulers without a child was commonly accepted
• However, the British refused to recognize adoptions as per the Doctrine of Lapse
• Therefore, and because the British refused to recognize adoptions, when the ruler of a subsidiary or protected state died without a natural heir, the state was annexed by the British
• Many states fell prey to the policy, including Satara (1848), Jaitpur and Sambalpur (1849), Jhansi (1853) and Nagpur (1854)

Pretext of Misrule

• Many states that joined the System of Subsidiary Alliance were annexed later
• Protecting the Indian ruler was the pretext of misrule that the British used, which made them station troops and take virtual control
• The rulers started burdening their people with collecting more taxes to pay for British troops and the rule deteriorated
• The British annexed Surat, Carnatic and Oudh using the rule
• Despite joining the System of Subsidiary Alliance with the British and being dependent on the British, in 1856, the British deposed Wajid Ali Khan, and annexed Awadh under the pretext of internal misrule
• Universally this act was condemned, becoming one of the main causes behind the Revolt of 1857
• By the annexation of Awadh in 1856, the entirety of India was under British rule

Reasons for the Success of the British

• There was an absence of strong central leadership in India because of the decline of the Mughals
• The British also benefited from a lack of unity among the Indian states
• The British united against the Indian states, taking advantage of their rivalries and playing them amongst one another
• Compliance of Indian rulers became another reason for British success
• Many Indian rulers chose Subsidiary Alliance
• Many wanted to protect a comfortable lifestyle and paid no care for the poor or for introducing reforms
• With a better disciplined army and navy, in 100 years (1757-1857) the British in India transformed from traders to builders of a major empire in the 19th century