Virology: Classification, Evolution and Natural Selection

Virology: Classification and Evolution

• Classification and evolution are key topics in virology
• Focus given to sequencing natural selection and interpreting phylogeny
• Virology includes sequencing the viral replication cycle and contrasting types of replication cycles

Classification (and Systematics)

• This is the study of the diversity of organisms and their evolutionary relationships
• Involves two main parts: taxonomy and phylogeny
• Taxonomy includes naming, describing, and classifying organisms (binomial nomenclature)
• Phylogeny covers the evolutionary history of a species or group

Linnaean Classification

• Hierarchical, where each level is more inclusive than the one below
• All species at a level share characteristics of that group
• Taxon involves grouping at any level

Evolution

• Changes in allele frequency from generation to generation
• There aren't changes in an individual during their lifetime

Natural Selection

• A key mechanism of evolution
• Beneficial traits increase in frequency over generations
• Requires heritable phenotypic variation

Basics of Phylogeny

• Evolutionary history of a species or group of species
• Phylogenetic tree: Representation of evolutionary relationships, not just phenotypic similarity
• Shows the pattern of descent from common ancestors
• Trees are hypotheses

Connecting Classification & Phylogeny

• Taxonomy should reflect phylogeny

Virology: General Characteristics

• Viruses are subcellular, intracellular parasites
• Composed of a capsid and genome
• Typically smaller than cells
• Replicate within cells and use a cell's resources for their own life cycle

Viruses Lack

• Ability to carry out metabolic processes
• Ability to reproduce independently of host cells
• Nucleus, cytoplasm, and organelles

Viral Structure

• Often very small, ranging from 20-300nm but can be larger such as pandora viruses

Genetic Material

• Can vary widely
• Can be DNA or RNA
• Can be single-stranded (SS) or double-stranded (DS), or both
• Linear, circular, or segregated
• Contains 2-1000+ genes

Capsid

• Protein coat made of capsomeres which are capsid of proteins
• Determines morphology and is involved in attachment to host cell

Envelopes

• Phospholipid bilayer surrounding the capsid
• Only present in some viruses
• Acquired from the host
• Contains host and virus proteins

Viral Replication

• Host range: Species or tissue that a particular virus can infect
• Host range is usually narrow with 1 or a few
• Often limited to specific tissue, for, like the flu targets the respiratory tract
• Specificity due to interaction with host

General Replication Cycle

• Consists of five steps:
• Binding to host cell
• Genome entry into the cell
• Genome replication and gene expression
• Assembly of new viruses within host cells
• Exit from the cell

Cycles

• Lytic & Lysogenic
• Most information originates from bacteriophages, or just “phages”
• The terms “lytic” and “lysogenic” refer specifically to phages; the principles apply to eukaryotic viruses as well

Lytic Cycle

• Basic replication cycle specifically for bacteriophages
• Horizontal transmission
• Virulent phages only do lytic cycle

Lysogenic Cycle

• Replication of the viral genome without destroying the host cell
• The phage genome integrates into the bacterial chromosome
• When the host replicates, the phage genome replicates as well
• Vertical transmission

Temperate Phage

• Capable of both lytic and lysogenic replication
• Ex: Phage λ

Bacterial Defenses

• Resistance to infection
• Restriction enzymes

Introduction to Prokaryotes

• First organisms on Earth appeared approximately 4 billion years ago
• The order in appearance was heterotrophs → photosynthetic autotrophs → aerobes

Cellular Organization

• Smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells
• They lack: nucleus, organelles, and mitochondria/chloroplasts
• Have more surface area

Cell Wall

• Determine/maintain cell shape: spherical, rod, or spiral
• Prevents bursting in hypotonic environment
• Peptidoglycan is polymer and only within domain Bacteria

Gram Stain

• Two types exist
• Gram-negative bacteria often cause serious disease
• Differentiation is important to treat infections correctly

Motility

• About half of all prokaryotes are capable of taxis.
• Taxis is directed movement in response to a stimulus, such as phototaxis.

Flagellum

• Present in all three domains.
• Exhibits similar functions across domains.
• Arose independently which is an example of analogous or convergent evolution.
• Eukaryotic and prokaryotic flagella differ, with prokaryotic flagella being 1/10th the width and having different propulsion and proteins.
• Bacteria and Archaea flagella share similar size and propulsion but utilize different proteins.

Bacterial Flagellum

• 3 main parts: motor, hook, and filament
• Function: H+ is pumped out across the plasma membrane by the ETC.
• This forms a gradient which means it has potential energy.
• It diffuses into cell through the motor which produces force meaning the hook turns which means filament rotates

Reproduction

• Binary Fission
• Asexual reproduction
• 1 cell becomes 2 cells
• Very rapid

Evolution in Prokaryotes

• Requires genetic variation
• Sexually reproducing populations go through meiosis & fertilization, with new combinations of alleles
• Prokaryotes reproduce asexually (exact copies) but still have high levels of genetic diversity

Mutation and Rapid Reproduction

• Exemplified by E. coli in the large intestine.
• Binary fission leads to genetically identical cells.
• Mutation (error) leads to genetically different cells, which reproduce rapidly.

Genetic Recombination

• Combining DNA from 2 Sources
• Eukaryotes: Meiosis & fertilization with DNA from 2 individuals becoming a zygote
• Prokaryotes: Binary fission that employs 3 mechanisms of recombination

Mechanisms of Recombination

• Transformation (Bacteria)
• Griffith – S. pneumoniae where a harmless strain that took up foreign DNA transformed into virulent
• Prokaryotic cells takes up foreign DNA from new environment and incorporates into genome
• Transduction (Virus)
• Phage (virus) transfers prokaryotic genes during viral replication
• Fragment of host DNA packaged into new viral particles
• Transferred to another host cell and incorporated into genome
• Conjugation (Bacteria)
• Genetic material transferred between living prokaryotic cells via F (fertility) factor
• F factor: can be plasmid, provides info for pilus and F+ cell is a donor
• F+ uses pilus to attach to F- cell (recipient)
• Pulls F- close which then makes Mating bridge that transfers single-stranded plasmid DNA, allowing the Recipient to become F+

Metabolic Diversity

• Energy Sources include:
  • Phototrophs: light
  • Chemotrophs: chemicals
• Carbon Sources include:
  • Autotrophs: inorganic (CO2)
  • Heterotrophs: organic (glucose)

Role of Oxygen

• Obligate aerobes require oxygen
• Obligate anaerobes can use fermentation and anaerobic respiration
  • Fermentation: Produce ATP without ETC
  • Anaerobic respiration: Produce ATP with ETC other than O2
• Facultative anaerobes can live in either Aerobic environment, and Use O2 and Anaerobic environment, performing Fermentation or anaerobic respiration

Prokaryotic Diversity

• Molecular Evidence
• rRNA.
• 2 Prokaryotic Domains: Archaea is more closely related to Eukarya than to Bacteria.

Domain Bacteria

Proteobacteria - E. Coli is an ancestor of mitochondria. Chlamydias

• Chlamydia trachomatis Spirochetes
• Borrelia burgdorferi Cyanobacteria
• Plant-like photosynthesis
• Ancestors of chloroplasts Gram-positive bacteria
• Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Archaea

• Extremophiles

Methanogens

• Release methane as by-product of metabolism.
• Strict anaerobes.
• Live in swamps and marshes and found in ruminants

Eukaryotes

• Topic focuses on the structure and evolution of eukaryotic cells
• Focus on structures within the cell, evolutionary history and characteristics of protists
• Supergroups of Protista are discussed

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

• Eukaryotic cells range from approximately 10-100 μm in size
• Key derived traits: nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Well-developed cytoskeleton: network of fibers within cell – Support, allows for asymmetry, changing shape
• Introduction to Eukaryotes
• Domain Eukarya
• 7. Red Algae
• 8. Chlorophytes
• 9. Charophytes
• 10. Plants
• Rhizaria
• Alveolates
• Stramenopiles
• Slime molds
• Entamoebas
• 11. Nucleariids
• 12. Fungi
• 13. Choanoflagellates
• 14. Animals
• 2. Archaeplastida
• 3. SAR
• 4. Amoebozoa
• 5. Opisthokonta
• Trypanosomes
• Euglenids
• 6. Discoba

Intro Eukaryotes

• Eukaryosis via Endosymbiosis
• Relationship between 2 species 1 which lives inside the other and Common in evolutionary history, particularly with mitochondria and chloroplasts
• Serial Endosymbiosis: Series of endosymbiotic events
• Primary: Phagocytosis of bacterium by larger cell, which can be prokaryotic OR eukaryotic and Prokaryote gets eaten and becomes organelle -Mitochondria came first which was when Alpha proteobacteria (aerobic) came within archaea (anaerobic) -Chloroplasts came later: Cyanobacteria within heterotrophic eukaryote
• Secondary: Bigger eukaryote (heterotrophic) engulfs smaller eukaryotic (autotrophic) which creates a 2º plastids

Plastid Evolution

• Plastid: general term for chloroplasts and related organelles. Chloroplast derived from cyanobacteria (prokaryote) via 1º endosymbiosis while 2º plastids derived from red or green algae (eukaryote) via 2º endosymbiosis
• Basic Process – Serial Endosymbiosis: Heterotrophic eukaryotic (w/ mitochondria) engulfs cyanobacteria (1º endosymbiosis) and Heterotrophic eukaryote enuglfs green algae (2º endosymbiosis)
• Diagram shows Role of endosymbiosis in evolution of eukaryotes

Eukaryotic Evolution

• Flux to Understand the evolution of Eukaryotes and new data can shift existing understandings of taxonomy
• Eukaryotic Supergroups: Archaeplastida, Amoebozoa, SAR, Opisthokonta and Discoba

Protists

• No consensus on divergence from common ancestor or what the groups should be called
• Mostly unicellular and include "protists,” plants, fungi, animals

"Protists": Introduction

• Protist: “the very first" which represent the 1st eukaryotic cells, up to 1.8 billion years ago meaning they preceded 1 billion years before plants, fungi, animals
• Protist Diversity: mostly unicellular with some colonial or multicellular with complex cellular organization
• Many Nutritional Strategies: Photoautotrophs, Heterotrophs and Mixotrophs: Capable of photosynthesis and heterotrophy

Eukaryotic Supergroups

• Ancestral: - Nucleus with membrane-bound organelles, Aerobic respiration and Mitochondria from 1º endosymbiosis
  • Archaeplastida =Shared derived trait: Chloroplasts via 1º endosymbiosis where Red algae, green algae, land plants – all photosynthetic and Participated in 2º endosymbiosis - Red Algae: Primarily multicellular, often highly branched with red color that live very deep in warm, tropical water - Green Algae: Closely related to land plants – very similar chloroplasts where Many forms can be – unicellular, colonial with 2 main groups comprising of Chloroplasts that are Mostly found in fresh water . The species Charophytes are sister groups to plants

Supergroups Continued...

• SAR: Grouped based on genetic evidence that exhibit the shared derived trait of 2º endosymbiosis of red algae which includes three major clades, Stramenopiles, Alveolates and Rhizarians
• Stramenopiles: The Shared derived trait that they have: Often have flagellum with hair-like projections that are Often paired with “smooth” flagellum while their main groups include, Diatoms, Golden algae and Brown algae
• Alveolates: Alveoli =Flattened vesicles inside plasma membrane supporting the membrane
• Rhizarians: Exhibit same Shared derived trait as SAR that are Genetic similarities where many Have protective shells of calcium or silica or are Important geologically (sedimentary rocks) Amoebozoans
• Typical "blob" shape that exhibit Lobe- or tube-shaped pseudopodia (false foot)
• Opisthokonta: Diverse group with Shared derived traits include Genetic similarities while including animals, fungi, several groups of protists
• Discoba: Exhibit great Extemely Diversity, but they have Shared derived traits: Crystalline rod in flagella though Some have 2º plastids via green algae which makes them mixotrophic

Evolution of Fungi

• Topic centers on the evolution, general characteristics, reproduction, diversity, and ecological importance of fungi
• Origin of Fungi Diagram Details the relationship between, Nucleariids, Opisthokonts,Chytrids (Other fungi), Animals and unicellular protists

Colonization of Land

• Fungi on land before plants and before then, there was terrestrial life like “green slime” like Cyanobacteria, Algae and small heterotrophs including fungi
• Diverse Fungi Lineages which include 5 major groups

General Characteristics

• A. Nutrition and Ecology
• Shared derived trait: the fungi are Absorptive heterotrophs
• They Secrete hydrolase (hydrolytic enzymes) in order to break down Polymers to → monomers externally which enables fungi to Absorb small organic molecules
• The Fungi 3 Main Lifestyles:
  • The fungi Decompose, absorbing nutrients from nonliving organic material while playing a Extremely important role in ecology
  • The fungi can also be Parasites, absorbing Nutrients from cells of living hosts causing athletes foot
  • The fungi can be Mutualists, absorbing Nutrients from host organisms but reciprocate to host's benefit

Body Structure

• Most common forms of fungi are Multicellular, and Some yeasts are unicellular, even though the common ancestor of all fungi was multicellular Multicellular Fungi
• Hyphae: Long, branched, thread-like filaments which are a Basic building block of fungus body with a Tubular cell wall surrounding plasma membrane enabling fungi to Elongate in order to expand to new food source
• Chitinous Cell Wall that is an Shared Derived Trait:
  • Chitin: Nitrogen-containing polysaccharide that is Strong, flexible and durable, also In cell walls are unique to fungi
  • Mycelium: Tangled mass of hyphae that is a Feeding network that grows around and within food source
• Reproductive diagram of how Most fungi reproduce via spores and have a Aerial hyphae: specialized (permit it) dispersal from complex Fruiting bodies the fungi produces like mushrooms... (etc) *
• Specialized Hyphae that are Sometimes adapted for feeding on living animals that are termed Haustoria and what they do is Penetrate plant tissue being either parasitic or mutualistic. Also Mycorrhizae enable species' Mutualism between fungi and plant roots and this means that the Fungi absorb soil nutrients while the Plants provide organic nutrients

Fungal Reproduction

A. Spores: Spores are Haploid meaning they can be: Produced by hyphae or fruiting body making them able to be Sexual or asexual and their dispersal can be Non-mobile while the location on which they Land has to be Moist and rich food where they can→ Germinate and grow → New mycelium B. Sexual Reproduction

• Mating types are used instead of male/female that Encode Genes in order to produce Pheromones and Pheromone receptions in what Number of mating types depends on number of alleles
• Main Steps of Fungal Mating Include...* 1- Hyphae release and then detect pheromones 2- Hyphae extend towards identified source of pheromone 3 - Plasmogamy: Cytoplasmic fusion happens when you get if different mating types that meet and fuse cytoplasm but not nuclei
• Fused mycelium with different nucleii called Heterokaryon are represented by a symbol in genetics, n+n
• Cells grow and divide leading them to later undergo Later,* Karyogamy (nuclear fusion) which → createsaDiploid zygote
• Which then undergoes* , meiosis to Restores haploid condition and creates spores to form, this process is Sexual which means spores produced are genetically unique to their parents

Fungal Reproduction: Asexual

• 2 main types of Asexual Reproduction
• Filamentous fungi* – spores via mitosis
• Single-celled yeast*: Cell division/budding

Fungal Diversity

• Chytrids = Phylum Chytridiomycota that lives in Terrestrial, freshwater or the marine environment and have Unique flagellated spores like Zoospores
• Zygomycetes = the Phylum Zygomycota (zygospores) which are Often Soil Decomposers Glomeromycetes = Phylum Glomeromycota which Form mycorrhizae with multiple plants
• Ascomycetes = Phylum Ascomycota that is the Largest group of know species that lives in a great diversity of areas
• Basidiomycetes are those that belong to a group in the Basidiomycota Phylum
• Ecological Importance of Fungi
• A.* Decomposers are the group that Break down organic material that helps make for an Essential recycle of inorganic nutrients and without them There is often no decomposers, and thus no life
• B.* Mutualists are those that Absorb nutrients from host, provide some benefit to them forming Fungus-Animal Mutualisms forming
• -help animals break down plant material
• • form animal gut, nest to promote plant growth
• Examples of Mutualistic Fungi
• Mycorrhizae that act as a Fungus-plant mutualism
• Endophytes form a mutualism by that acts and lives within the inside leaves or stems and make toxins
• Lichens: Mutual relationship between fungus and photosynthetic microorganism with a role to provide a Habitats and Protection, retains water and nutrients and Can grow on rocks, trees, roofs C:Fungal Parasites, Absorb nutrients from host, do not provide benefit
• Plants- Chestnut blight by growing enters cracks in bark forming hyphae
• Practical Uses: fungi can be consumed, be researched and medically valuable
• Consumptions is a source for – morels and truffles as well as blue cheese and Yeasts is used for fermenting sugars*
• In humans is a source of great research and the ability to produce Medicine as an antibiotic *

Animals

• Animal Diversity and characteristics are explored
• Characteristics of Animals: A. Heterotrophy: The animals Depend on producers for energy (ANCESTRAL and Ingest and digest internally B. Cell Structure & Organization:
• All animals are Eukaryotic, Multicellular organism
• All animals Lack cell walls, but are held together by derived*Extracellular matrix that connect, support cells, mostly made of collagen C. Hierarchical Organization: ALL Organisms exhibit differentiation using differentiated cells for specialized function but there are often (Most have) DifferentiatedTissue, Groups of cells with common structure and function which is a Derived trait of MOST animals (ex: Muscle and nerve tissue)
• (Many have) Differentiated organs made of tissues in order to perform functions D. Reproductive Development: Usually sexual and diploid dominant, Meiosis - produce haploid sperm and Fertilization small flagellated sperm fuses with larger, non-motile egg to become an offspring E. Animal Development and Evolution
• Early Embryonic Development*: All animals are (DERIVED) where their: - *Cleavage is a *Mitotic divisions without growth - *Blastulation is Cell migration * forming them a hollow ball (Blastula) - Blastula being a Hollow ball of cells around blastocoel (blastula cavity) - Gastrulation: Is where you use the Process of inward folding of blastula
  • Homeobox genes (DERIVED): Are often regulatory elements to the developmental genetic expression and are Homologous throughout most animals
• Characterization of Animals by the Body Plan of the Animal Kingdom:
• Asymmetry: No plane of symmetry through body
• Radial symmetry allows Only 1 plane through longitudinal axis results in equal halves and is Related to Cephalization: developmental of a head, central nervous system and sense organs
• Bilateral Symmetry: Allows facilitate complex movement
• • Bilateral Animal Axes: Is where you determine if the is a Side that is Left/Right Dorsal (to think of dolphin) /Ventral and Anterior/Posterior

Germ Layers

• Embryonic Tissue Development: Germ layers: Concentric layers of embryonic tissue Layer:Outer layer
• • layers form during embryonic development using a process called gastrulation:
• Ectoderm: outer surface that can serve as an Outer covering or build out the nervous system
• Endoderm: inner layer that Lines the digestive tube, for other organs (lungs)
• Mesoderm: Middle layer where you can find Everything else from* Muscles, skeleton, etc

Coelom Body Structure

Have or lack a coelom

• Applies to only triploblast organisms that is a feature where animals can have what is called coelom
• Coelom is the name for the Body cavity which describes a -fluid-filled space between body wall and digestive that forms a
• Coelom: what you call a “tube-within-a-tube" body that can be :
• Body cavity: Fluid-filled space between body wall and digestive tube-tube" body
• Diagram* with coelem
• Pseudocoelomate bodies and the process by which animals went from Ancestral bilaterian to a → no coelom and became what are referred not to as coelomates and this allowed for what we consider True coelom ancestral to pseudocoelom and acoelom, being pseudocoelms and acoelom are derived traits

Advantages of Body Structure

• Hydrostatic skeleton support movement andCirculation does not allow for the organism to not be flat
• This does give Animals who develop Coelyms ability to have No cavity at all

Developmental Modes: Basic Modes

• Can be classified as Protosomes, vs Deuterosome
• Ancestral/ Derived

###Protosome Development

• exhibit Ancestral traits like a Spiral shape and determinate Cleavage which forms so the Blastopore to becomes → Mouth ###Deuterostome Development
• exhibit Developed traits like a Radials shape and indeterminate Cleavage which forms the Blastosphere to then become → anus, so it will make Coelom in order to forms from folds of archenteron

Origins and Cambrian Explosion

Animal Evolution occurs in the Origins from Sister taxon to what we refer to the Choanoflagellate which is a Flagellated unicellular eukaryotes that is Extremely similar to choanocyte and Can display Similar cells that exhibit other animals, but can have no other groups

Cambrian Explosion

• that exhibit a time approximately 500mil years ago
• First evidence of many of the record in fossil form
• First appearance of First appearance of many body parts in fossil record and First evidence of hard body parts in fossil record
• Cambrian explosion gave rise to Extant Phyla that can or cannot last till today making :
• ~35 extant animal phyla and that exist
• ~1.3 million known species throughout the world and that
• 10-20 million is estimated amount of species worldwide that are in the planet

Animal Phylogeny

• animals are Monophyletic with their
• Animals can be classified under either of these three categories: 1.**Eumetazoa : Can be traced by “True animals” that exhibit a “True coelom” as one of their
• Derived traits. 2.Bilateria: Also related to Eumetazoa are derived using Derived traits , such as Bilateral traits and Triploblasty 3. Nephozoa : Animals often defined using Derived structural traits and also the presence of Excertory Structies that can exist for the to use as structural coelomic bodies in order to exert waste out of the body. (Most exhibit Coelomic bodies)
• Nephrozoa has branched into two new categories called .*
• ( Deusterostomia & Protosomia)**
• **Deusterostomia ****- Is a Animal Category whose traits can often be used as a Derived development trait , for those with Deuterostome development
• Protosomia*- Is a Animal Category whose traits can often be used as a Derivate development trait with that of those who express Protostome development.
• Can also be classified by what structural components they develop using their body*
• - Spiralais – A member category of animals that all have the same trait * Entirely invertebrate but No specific derived morphological trait. This groups has a high degree of complexity and as much as a diverse community it is often an entire mystery. Ex.) Jellyfish and some corals*
• - Ecdysozoa is another category and like spirillis all animals listed have the same Entirely Invertbrate body structure and are defined by Derived traits. such as the Ecdysis: that can only be associated with animals that shed external out layer such as those that possess of a exoskeleton outer shell/ covering.*

Animal Diversity II

Key Focus: Characteristics of animal classifications are explored using key terminology along with Basal traits shared throughout many phylums.

• Key Concepts** Characteristics of animals are explored while examining the evolutionary history that gave rise to their classification and their similarities.

• Traits of Animals are grouped using the following Phylums:*

• I. Basal Animals*

• II. Introduction to Bilateria*

• III. Spiralia Clade*

• IV. Ecdysozoa Clade*

• Phylum Porlifera

• Can be derived as “ *To have pores to their physiology.

• Often a group of complex * Animals of this group who have *least structural traits to define their physiology,

• However organisms that come from these groups all * Multi-Cellular meaning all organisms listed can come from all cell types and do not show characteristics of : 
*No symmetry *No distinctive tissues in their physiology to better provide a *Basal organization of the Metazoa

• *Sponge Morphology Can be grouped by **

• -simple sponges ( some are more complex)*

• Osculum* *- A single Open end that often filters waste material and by products out of the spong

• Spongocoel* *- A Cavity where food is stored

• Water is derived for moving food and removing waste**

• • • *Note a distinctive digestion is not derived within their tissue. The digestive process mostly Intracellular

-****Phylum Cnideria *

• Possess True Tissues.

• Have all their body components arranged by way of Radial symmetry on the organism. 


• Animals exhibit a Diploblastic body.

• In a Two layer thin Gasrtovalscular Cavity.

• Cells inside the organism are Often Cnidocytes

• (These specialized stinging cells are often unique to the physiology as a identifying element** ###Introduction to Bilateria

• Shared Characteristics Often include Bilateral symmetry along with T Top Trío last trait or what you refer to Tripoblasty; A tri set of traits that have all the animals traits of
  All are within animals also contain Nephrozoa.

• *- Derived trait: Coelom or excretory structure, to remove waste. All use kidneys in some capacity. **

• Animals categorized as such

• Protostomia; Most Animals placed in the category use the same set of anatomical and structural traits such as Monophyletic groups used through out evolution to identify organisms.

• Protostome ancestor, to better categorize a diverse range

• Extremely diversity can be a signifier to help narrow the exact trait one might assess

• ** Deuerostomes**

• Are often Monophyletic group of species that are that of that

• Deurstome. And have a variety of ancestors often share many identifiers.

##** Spirills clade**( Not derived as a * Not phylum) - This is a class

• Clade trait( that is never in phylum) . This is Often Derived as a *Genetic Similarities and is. Named for a protostome development

##Shared Classifiers with the trait

• *-Ancentrial **

• *Bilateral and Protostome

• B. "Play helminths "

• *Dorsal Centrally Flattened.

• Derived Acoelomate.

• Can also have Derived free leaving parasites

• - Rotifera*: *Freshwatermarine dampsoll .

• Vaguely smaller than most traits .

• Corona trait

• Pseudoa Cello Mates

• Mollusca trait, *derived share of 3 body traits

• Coelomates share a Derived set of anatomy Thin sheet to protect the masses of viscreal areas or

• ***often known at Mass of Viscreal organs , is the main portion

• Foot

• ***-Anelida (The worms .“Little rings”

• **Repeat trait to segement body

• Derived. wall colm and anatomy by segements*

• Ecdysozoan: -Clade

• Traits will either be an orgaismic not * Phylum

• - Shared. Traits (Ecdysozoans traits , outer skin shed, to promote life and grow**THis trait derived as the : **Bilateral . symmetry or : or *Triploblast

• - Traits : Nematoda -*

• Round worms. Body to cover the cuticle in order to have the

• Pseudlo anatomy 
 *Can be aquatic or soil life forms along parasitic

• can often grow from a Hearyt Worm (TRICHONOSIS)

• *Athropoda :

• **“Joint Foot’ trait of a leg”

• Derived trait to segement body

• *- Trait’s body divided intro sections

• -Trais, that are derived anatomy that is a skeleton (outside of the body)

Animal Diversity III

1. Deutorosomes

• Monophyletic clade
• Anus arises first

2. Phlyum Chordata

• • Shared traits: naticord, dorsal hollow nerve tube, and pharyngeal somites
• Cephalchorda
• Vertebrae that have skeletons that protect vital organs and tissue

##Vertebrates

• The vertebrae clade exhibit traits often developed within animal physiology that allows for often evident traits to be often embryo
• There skeletons are bones
• Has 2+ box clusters
• Basalt Verberates also have a” Jawless fish” ##Guantomoses
• all exhibit "Jaw- mouth" from anatomy and evolution. that possess an 4 hoxes trait
• This clade as a Chondricthyes
• Clade osteichthyes "Bone Fish”
• has swim bladder

##E: Lobe fin's

• All tetrapods are placed here!
• Muscular limb
• Actinist

Tetraods (The Final Group- with most recent evolution)

• *4 limbs with hands *neck (the ability to move the upper body)
• *A fused limb
• all traits are from amphibians*

##G: Ammanotes - a key part of our genetic makeup.

• key Amniotic
• Ammanion= is a mambraine the often protects a embryo
• also Rib cage ventilation system allows for efficient breathing and life A: Derived traits are for mamals glands
• Has skin to keep the warm and fat.
• Lay eggs . Mammals: Has a mammory system but now
• Platypus and Endemas: Can only be in Austroila

Marsupial Born very early: Pouch =Opossiom=Kanagroos koala

• Euarians : placenta :longr pregnancy than marsupails. Complter embroyic devlopmnts in utrers ###Primates:
• *Contains apes and lemure Big Brains ! Short Jaw!.Grasp complex behavior = oppo thumbs!
• recent human evolution.
• Share an recent common asnder. all Oringated in sfruxa and a Homo specious only living honimin

##Humano Laster group !

• Big Braind Compls tools and smak joints !

Plant Diversity

• Plants : Diversification via trait variation
• Plants are traced using Chlorophyte. Land based traits.
• Plants have Celloluse walls!! =charaptyes and land ! = most dry out!!! The dry ones = survive
• all can spores for the. Poly to protect! **

Land based plant traits

• alternation of generations
• Hplodi gametos =
• Spores = miosis

2 cellural : Depentdnt: embryo and gametes

Walls store - wall for cell

Multi cellular ganmentia multi celualr site: Can be used to re produce via sexual reproduction with:

Anitferda = produce and relwde

= cell differnetaie to shott. Shoot the end! Waxy to keep the water in:

• Prevtnion
• All not gas exchange

Stemonta = tiny opening.

=cells joins to trnasport and

Now the A. NON vacualr B. VASULCAR

• seeds or no seeds .

NO SEED : A charactertics .

= the non waxy

• MOSSES!! Lacken speilzaed tissue . Requires small envioremtn for; water
• and sexual activity Key trait

Importance

Commo n for oil

C= has mitrocen and

#Vascular plants : Trairs::large =Envalves better sporeal

• has water and roots allow form bigger trait.

Leaves. Primary photosynethic

• leaves . And . The spore leaves.
• Fern life cyel:: has a water trnaspoe that
• Water - 2 types = has roots Soiled Root tissue Root Waxy Leads. Stamoa all the way
• Comnesion and photo
• Bi dierctional trnasport =source -lefa
• Pressure = source ! Is the lowe

All types and are : and

• Related plants
• monlophate . - parphylic . =

Plant Diversity II

• Explores seed traits, particularly the transition from water based to land-based diversity of the species
• I. :
  • Derived: The diversification seed patterns = better dpaetd for tree lite

Seeds: is more structure and is all terrain .

===reduces dependent embryo - to protect = for gamotyhe

• Hetersprty - or 2 spores
• ovule: megasproam and the inner tegmental. Pollen. What it is or what it comes from ! - the male.

What it comes from :

pollwation

By wing etc.

Gymnsperns - nude sesdesd one calude

Life cycle dependa tne on. Spsresl And hetrpsorry

Gynsoperm diversity

= ear,y 3 types .

III . Anglesperms - vessel seeds =

Anio traits :

• 3 layers

Ovary Petit and then sepal!

Flsah that can adapt etc

Futs : overay can thiccksn

• Has sperm 2 cell . egg and central = ENDSPERN= that nurtire

#Life cycle and how t 4 Sinng flm

• *ANGI =MOST plants