Variables u Deviazzjoni Standard

Independent and Dependent Variables

• Independent variable: The factor that is changed or manipulated by the researcher.
• Dependent variable: The factor that is measured or observed to see if it's affected by the independent variable.
• Control group: A group that does not receive the treatment or manipulation to act as a comparison.
• Null hypothesis: A statement suggesting no relationship between the independent and dependent variables.

Standard Deviation

• Standard deviation measures the spread of data around the mean.
• Low standard deviation: Data points are clustered closely around the mean, indicating high consistency.
• High standard deviation: Data points are spread out, indicating more variability.

Standard Error of the Mean

• Standard error of the mean (SEM) quantifies the variability of a sample mean estimated from a population.
• High SEM: The means of different samples vary considerably.
• Low SEM: The means of different samples cluster tightly, indicating high consistency in sampling.
• Overlapping error bars: Inconsistent data; lack of a meaningful trend.
• Non-overlapping error bars: Suggests that the observed difference between groups is more significant.

Data Types

• Qualitative data: Descriptive data (e.g., colors, textures).
• Quantitative data: Numerical data (e.g., counts, measurements).
• Deductive reasoning: General principles to specific conclusions.
• Inductive reasoning: Specific observations to general conclusions.

Functional Groups

• Functional groups: Specific groups of atoms within molecules that dictate their chemical properties. (List functional groups if supplied)

DNA Structure

• Deoxyribose and ribose are five-carbon sugars. Structural differences are key for distinguishing these sugars.
• Complementary base pairs (DNA): Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), Cytosine (C) pairs with Guanine (G).
• Draw/identify diagrams of monosaccharides, triglycerides, amino acids, and nucleotides according to the provided information.

Fats

• Saturated fats: Contain only single bonds between carbon atoms.
• Unsaturated fats: Contain one or more double bonds between carbon atoms.

Protein Structure and Function

• Primary structure: The sequence of amino acids in a protein.
• Tertiary/Quaternary structure: The overall 3D shape of a protein, resulting from interactions between amino acids and directly affecting protein function.
• Bonds between DNA base pairs: Hydrogen bonds. (Number of hydrogen bonds between base pairs).

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins and Nucleic Acids

• Carbohydrates: Function for energy and structure.
• Lipids: Store energy, insulate, and form cell membranes.
• Proteins: Perform various functions, including catalysis, transport, and support.
• Nucleic acids: Store and transmit genetic information (DNA & RNA).

Enzyme Factors Affecting Rate

• List factors influencing the rate of enzymatic reactions (e.g. temperature, pH).
• Explain how each factor affects enzyme function.

Types of Chemical Bonds

• List the types of chemical bonds, as relevant to the context, including ionic, polar covalent, nonpolar covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

Water Characteristics

• List 7 characteristics of water.

Enzyme Inhibitors

• Competitive inhibitors: Compete with substrate for active site.
• Noncompetitive inhibitors: Bind to a site other than the active site., altering conformation.

Cellular Processes

• Hydrolysis: Decomposition of molecules by reaction with water.
• Dehydration synthesis: Creation of large molecules by removing water molecules.
• Photosynthesis: Synthesis of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide. Cellular Respiration: Breakdown of carbohydrates for energy.

Organelles involved in Protein Synthesis

• List organelles that play a key role in protein synthesis.

Compartmentalization

• Compartmentalization: Separation of cell's activities into different organelles.
• Importance in cell function: Efficiency and prevention of interference between cellular processes.

Cell Comparisons

• Compare characteristics of plant and animal cells including commonalities and dissimilarities
• Compare characteristics of prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells including similarities and differences.

Cell Organelles and Functions

• List the functions and description of all the cell organelles and provide examples

Solutions and Transport

• Define the terms isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic.
• Describe how transport across the plasma membrane.
• Types: Simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport.

Cellular Processes (Further details)

• Describe cellular respiration: glycolysis, Krebs cycle (& location), electron transport chain (& location).
• Describe photosynthesis: Light-dependent reactions, & Light-independent reactions (Calvin cycle).

Fermentation

• Describe fermentation: alcoholic and lactic acid fermentation, including the products & and the location.

Chlorophyll

• Describe chlorophyll, its role, and its importance in photosynthesis.