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• Significant changes happened in the Indian subcontinent during the first half of the 18th century.
• The Mughal Empire's boundaries were reshaped due to the rise of several independent kingdoms.
• By 1765, the British had successfully taken major portions in eastern India.
• Political conditions in 18th-century India shifted fast.
• The chapter covers the rise of new political groups in the subcontinent from 1707 (Aurangzeb's death) to 1761 (Third Battle of Panipat).

Crisis of the Empire and the Later Mughals

• • The Mughal Empire faced severe crises in the late 17th century, primarily stemming from Emperor Aurangzeb's extended military campaigns in the Deccan region.
  • His relentless focus on this war not only stretched the empire's military resources thin but also drastically diminished its financial stability. As Aurangzeb's rule came to an end, his successors found themselves grappling with the increasingly powerful mansabdars and provincial governors.
  • These officials began to assume control over significant aspects of military and revenue administration, effectively siphoning off funds that were essential for maintaining the imperial capital. In response to the mounting tax burdens and the struggle for local power, widespread peasant uprisings and zamindari rebellions erupted, further destabilizing the already fragile empire.
  • A significant blow came in 1739 when Nadir Shah of Iran invaded and plundered Delhi, an event that highlighted the empire's vulnerability. Following this, Ahmad Shah Abdali conducted a series of raids into northern India between 1748 and 1761, further eroding Mughal authority in the region.
  • In the wake of these tumultuous events, subsequent Mughal emperors became increasingly pawns in the political games played by noble factions, leading to a rise in political violence, which included assassinations and instances of blinding of rivals.
  • This power struggle allowed governors and zamindars to entrench their dominance in critical regions such as Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad, creating a patchwork of semi-autonomous rule that undermined the central authority of the Mughal Empire.

The Rajputs

• Rajput kings of Amber and Jodhpur served the Mughals well and gained autonomy in their watan jagirs (ancestral lands).
• In the 18th century, Rajput rulers sought to expand control over adjacent regions.
• Ajit Singh of Jodhpur and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber were involved in Mughal court politics.
• Influential Rajput families sought the subadari of Gujarat and Malwa.
• Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur governed Gujarat.
• Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber governed Malwa.
• Emperor Jahandar Shah renewed these offices in 1713.
• Rajputs expanded by seizing imperial territories near their watans.
• Jodhpur annexed Nagaur, while Amber took portions of Bundi.
• Sawai Raja Jai Singh established Jaipur as his new capital.
• In 1722, Sawai Raja Jai Singh received the subadari of Agra.
• From the 1740s, Maratha campaigns in Rajasthan pressured Rajput principalities and curbed their expansion.
• Rajput chieftains built hilltop forts that became power centers with urban areas, palaces, temples, trade centers, and water harvesting.
• Sawai Jai Singh of Amber built five astronomical observatories called Jantar Mantar in Delhi, Jaipur, Ujjain, Mathura, and Varanasi.

Seizing Independence: The Sikhs

• The Sikh organization into a community in the 17th century aided regional state-building in Punjab.
• Guru Gobind Singh fought battles against Rajput and Mughal leaders before and after the Khalsa was formed in 1699.
• After Guru Gobind Singh died in 1708, the Khalsa revolted against Mughal rule led by Banda Bahadur.
• Khalsa declared its sovereignty, issuing coins under the names of Guru Nanak and Guru Gobind Singh.
• Khalsa established an administration between the Sutlej and Jamuna rivers.
• Banda Bahadur was captured in 1715 and executed in 1716.
• In the 18th century, Sikhs organized into bands (jathas) then into misls.
• Combined forces known as dal khalsa met in Amritsar during Baisakhi and Diwali.
• Collective decisions were made called “resolutions of the Guru (gurmatas)”.
• The rakhi system offered protection to cultivators for 20% of their produce.
• Guru Gobind Singh inspired the Khalsa with the mantra raj karega khalsa (the Khalsa shall rule).
• The Khalsa resisted Mughal governors and Ahmad Shah Abdali.
• In 1765, the Khalsa declared its sovereignty by minting their own coins.
• Coin inscriptions matched those ordered by Banda Bahadur.
• Sikh territories expanded from the Indus to the Jamuna, but were divided under different rulers.
• Maharaja Ranjit Singh reunited these groups and made Lahore his capital in 1799.

The Marathas

• Shivaji (1627–1680) created a stable kingdom by opposing Mughal rule.
• Powerful warrior families (deshmukhs) and peasant-pastoralists (kunbis) supported Shivaji.
• The Chitpavan Brahmanas, serving as Peshwa (principal minister), wielded power after Shivaji's death.
• Poona became capital of the Maratha kingdom.
• The Marathas developed a successful military organization under the Peshwas.
• Maratha success came from bypassing Mughal strongholds, raiding cities, and disrupting supply lines.
• The Maratha empire expanded from 1720 to 1761.
• Malwa and Gujarat were seized from the Mughals in the 1720s.
• By the 1730s, the Maratha king was acknowledged as overlord of the Deccan and possessed right to levy chauth and sardeshmukhi.
• After raiding Delhi in 1737, Maratha control expanded into Rajasthan, Punjab, Bengal, Orissa, Karnataka, and Tamil/Telugu regions.
• Areas weren't included in empire officially, but paid tribute.
• Military campaigns made other rulers hostile towards Marathas.
• As such, they did not support Marathas during the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761.
• Alongside military activity, Marathas developed an effective administration.
• After conquest, revenue demands were implemented based on local conditions.
• Agriculture was supported and trade revived.
• Sindhia of Gwalior, Gaekwad of Baroda the Bhonsle of Nagpur, amongst other Maratha chiefs (sardars), raised powerful armies.
• Maratha campaigns into Malwa in the 1720s did not harm cities' growth.
• Ujjain prospered under Sindhia, and Indore under Holkar.
• New trade routes emerged within Maratha-controlled areas.
• Silk from Chanderi found a new outlet in Poona.

The Jats

• Jats consolidated power during the late 17th and 18th centuries.
• Under Churaman, Jats gained control of areas west of Delhi.
• By the 1680s, they dominated the region between Delhi and Agra.
• Jats were essentially caretakers of Agra for period.
• The Jats were agriculturalists, with Panipat and Ballabhgarh as key trade hubs.
• The kingdom of Bharatpur grew strong under Suraj Mal.
• When Nadir Shah plundered Delhi in 1739, many notables sought refuge there.
• Jawahir Shah, Suraj Mal’s son, had 30,000 troops and hired 20,000 Maratha and 15,000 Sikh troops to combat the Mughals.
• Unlike Bharatpur’s traditional fort, Dig had an elaborate garden palace mixing Amber and Agra's styles.
• The buildings had architectural forms linked to Shah Jahan royalty.
• Jat power reached its peak under Suraj Mal from 1756-1763.
• Areas under Suraj Mal: eastern Rajasthan, southern Haryana, western Uttar Pradesh, and Delhi.
• Suraj Mal built forts/palaces, including Lohagarh fort in Bharatpur, one of the region's strongest.