US History: 1898-1945 - Transformation and Challenges

• Period 7: 1898-1945 saw America transform in less than a lifetime. Americans experienced advancements from buggies to automobiles to airplanes. The era included two world wars and the worst depression in American history.

Overview of the Era

• The era was shaped by continued industrialization, urbanization, and immigration.
• The government's role and size, especially at the federal level, expanded to address the challenges of economic booms and busts. Two global wars further influenced this expansion.
• Debates arose over the role of government, science, religion, culture, and ethnic diversity.
• These debates led to anxiety and conflicts, including the resurgence of the Ku Klux Klan.
• Foreign policy shifted from noninvolvement to international leadership, initially hesitant but later accepted.

Alternate View

• The period started with the Spanish-American War in 1898 and ended with World War II in 1945.
• The Progressive Era had roots in the last two decades of the 19th century.
• The New Deal coalition, formed in the 1930s, continues to influence today's politics.

Key Concepts

• Governmental, political, and social organizations struggled to address the effects of industrialization and economic uncertainty. Urbanization and mass migration, and related social changes were contributing factors.
• The communication and transportation revolution created a new mass culture and spread modern values, but also cultural conflicts. These conflicts arose from migration, world wars, and economic distress.
• Global conflicts over resources and ideologies spurred debates on national values and the U.S.'s role in the world, leading to its dominance on the international stage. Dominance included military, political, and cultural aspects.

Becoming a World Power, 1898-1917

• From the 1790s, U.S. foreign policy had prioritized westward expansion, protecting U.S. interests abroad, and limiting foreign influence in the Americas. After the Civil War, a booming industrial economy created a shift in U.S. relations with the world.
• The U.S. shifted from relative isolation to controlling territories in the Caribbean. The U.S. also expanded across the Pacific to the Philippines.

Seward, Alaska, and The French in Mexico

• William H. Seward served as secretary of state (1861-1869) under Presidents Lincoln and Johnson. He was influential like John Quincy Adams.
• Seward prevented Great Britain and France from aiding the Confederacy during the Civil War. He annexed Midway Island, sought canal rights in Nicaragua, and purchased Alaska.
• Seward failed to annex Hawaii or purchase the Danish West Indies as well.

The French in Mexico

• Napoleon III took advantage of the U.S. Civil War by occupying Mexico with French troops.
• Seward invoked the Monroe Doctrine in 1865, threatening military action against the French.
• Napoleon III withdrew his troops from Mexico.

The Purchase of Alaska

• Russia and Great Britain both claimed Alaska.
• Russia established a seal hunting colony, but the territory became a burden.
• Russia sold Alaska to the U.S. for $7.2 million in 1867, due to Seward's lobbying and Russian support during the Civil War.
• The purchase was derided as "Seward's Folly" or "Seward's Icebox" for years.

The "New Imperialism"

• As the U.S. industrialized, it intensified foreign involvement for raw materials and markets.
• Overseas ventures were viewed as a "safety valve" for domestic unrest after the Panic of 1893.
• Expansion would come through economic and diplomatic means, not military action.

International Darwinism

• Darwin's survival of the fittest concept was applied to competition among nations for colonies and influence.
• Expansionists sought territories to demonstrate strength, extending manifest destiny into the Caribbean, Central America, and the Pacific.

Imperialism

• Other nations like Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan sought influence in Africa, Asia, and the Pacific.
• Some Americans believed that the U.S. needed to compete with imperialist powers to avoid becoming a second-class power.
• Advocates of American expansion included missionaries, politicians, naval strategists, and journalists.

Missionaries

• Reverend Josiah Strong argued that Anglo-Saxons were "the fittest to survive" in "Our Country: Its Possible Future and Present Crisis" (1885).
• He and others believed that Protestant Americans had a duty to spread Christianity and their superior civilization.
• Mission activities encouraged support for U.S. government involvement abroad.

Politicians

• Republican politicians, allied with business leaders, favored foreign affairs to open new markets.
• Leaders like Henry Cabot Lodge and Theodore Roosevelt sought to build U.S. power through global expansion.

Naval Power

• Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan argued for a strong navy for securing foreign markets and world power in "The Influence of Sea Power Upon History" (1890).
• Naval strategists used Mahan's arguments to convince Congress to fund modern ships.
• Overseas islands were acquired for coaling and supply stations. The U.S. had the third largest navy by 1900.

Popular Press

• Newspaper and magazine editors increased circulation with adventure stories about distant and exotic places.
• The popular press increased public interest and demand for a larger U.S. role in world affairs.

Latin America

• The U.S. had a special interest in the Western Hemisphere, acting as a protector of Latin America since the Monroe Doctrine in the 1820s.
• James G. Blaine played a role in extending this tradition as Secretary of State.
• Blaine's efforts resulted in the Pan-American Conference (1889). The Conference aimed to establish closer ties between the U.S. and its southern neighbors.
• The Conference created a permanent organization for international cooperation on trade and other issues.
• Despite failing to reduce tariff rates as hoped, the Conference established a foundation for hemispheric cooperation. The Pan-American Union is now part of the Organization of American States (established in 1948).

Cleveland, Olney, and the Monroe Doctrine

• A boundary dispute between Venezuela and British Guiana led President Cleveland and Secretary of State Olney to invoke the Monroe Doctrine.
• The U.S. insisted that Great Britain arbitrate the dispute.
• Britain initially refused, but agreed when the U.S. threatened military force.
• The arbitrators sided mainly with Britain, but Latin American nations appreciated U.S. efforts.
• The Venezuela boundary dispute improved U.S.-British relations, leading to a friendship vital in the 20th century.

The Spanish-American War

• The Caribbean area, especially Cuba, was a primary target of American imperialism.
• Large American investments in Cuban sugar, Spanish misrule, and the Monroe Doctrine led to U.S. intervention.

Causes of War

• American public opinion was swayed by jingoism, an aggressive form of nationalism.
• Expansionists wanted the U.S. to become a world power like European imperialist nations.
• Cleveland and McKinley were hesitant, deeming military action morally wrong and economically unsound.
• Specific events and background pressures led to popular demand for war against Spain.

Cuban Revolt

• Cuban nationalists renewed their fight against Spanish colonial rule in 1895.
• They destroyed Cuban plantations hoping that the U.S. would intervene.
• Spain sent General Valeriano Weyler to crush the revolt. Civilians were forced into armed camps, leading to death from disease and starvation. Weyler was dubbed "The Butcher".

Yellow Press

• Yellow journalism used sensationalized reporting to promote war fever.
• Joseph Pulitzer's "World" and William Randolph Hearst's "Journal" published exaggerated accounts of Spanish atrocities in Cuba.
• Americans urged intervention for humanitarian reasons to stop the atrocities.

De Lome Letter (1898)

• A letter from a Spanish diplomat critical of President McKinley was leaked to the press.
• Dupuy de Lôme's letter was seen as an insult to U.S. national honor.

Sinking of the Maine

• The U.S. battleship Maine exploded in Havana harbor, killing 260 Americans.
• The yellow press blamed Spain. It was later determined that the explosion was likely an accident.

McKinley's War Message

• McKinley issued an ultimatum to Spain to agree to a ceasefire in Cuba, but the U.S. newspapers clamoured for war.
• McKinley sent a war message to Congress, citing reasons to intervene in Cuba: to end barbarities, protect U.S. citizens, protect U.S. commerce, and end the menace to U.S. peace.

Teller Amendment

• Congress authorized war with the Teller Amendment.
• The Teller Amendment said that the U.S. would not take political control of Cuba and that Cubans would control their government.

Fighting The War

• The Spanish-American War began in Manila Bay, Philippines.
• The U.S. victory was swift, with Secretary of State John Hay describing it as "a splendid little war."

The Philippines

• Theodore Roosevelt ordered Commodore George Dewey's fleet to the Philippines, anticipating war.
• Dewey's fleet defeated Spanish ships in Manila Bay. US troops helped capture the city of Manila on August 13.

Invasion of Cuba

• US troops landed in Cuba by the end of June.
• Tropical diseases killed more American soldiers than battle. More than 5,000 US soldiers died of malaria, typhoid, and dysentery while less than 500 died in battle.
• A cavalry charge up San Juan Hill by the Rough Riders, led by Theodore Roosevelt was a celebrated event.
• The U.S. Navy destroyed the Spanish fleet at Santiago Bay. This led to Spain's request for peace.

Annexation of Hawaii

• American missionaries and entrepreneurs had settled in Hawaii.
• American settlers aided in overthrowing Queen Liliuokalani in 1893.
• President Cleveland had opposed annexation.
• Congress and President McKinley completed annexation in July 1898.
• Hawaii became a U.S. territory in 1900 and a state in 1959.

Controversy Over the Treaty of Peace

• The treaty signed in Paris recognized Cuban independence. The treaty also resulted in U.S. acquisition of Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines for $20 million.
• Americans accepted Cuban independence, but many opposed taking over the Philippines as a colony.

The Philippine Question

• Congress and the public were divided between imperialists and anti-imperialists.
• Anti-imperialists opposed acquiring the Philippines.
• They argued that it would violate the Declaration of Independence.
• The Treaty of Paris was ratified by the Senate in February 1899.
• Filipinos were outraged and fought against U.S. control.

Other Results of the War

• Imperialism remained a topic of debate.
• The Anti-Imperialist League, led by William Jennings Bryan, opposed further expansion.

Insular Cases

• The Supreme Court ruled that constitutional rights did not automatically extend to territorial possessions.
• Congress had the power to decide whether or not to grant rights.

Cuba and the Platt Amendment (1901)

• The Teller Amendment guaranteed respect for Cuba's sovereignty.
• U.S. troops remained in Cuba until 1901.
• Congress required Cuba to accept the Platt Amendment for troop withdrawal.
• The Platt Amendment prohibited Cuba from signing treaties impairing its independence.
• It also allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuba to maintain order and required Cuba to permit the U.S. to establish naval bases, including Guantanamo Bay.
• The Platt Amendment made Cuba a U.S. protectorate.

Election of 1900

• Republicans renominated McKinley and Theodore Roosevelt.
• Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan.
• Bryan opposed imperialism.
• McKinley won by a larger margin than in 1896.

Recognition of U.S. Power

• The Spanish-American War made Americans feel national pride.
• European nations recognized the United States as a first-class power.

Open Door Policy in China

• John Hay was alarmed by the European spheres of influence in China.
• Hay asked nations controlling spheres of influence to accept the Open Door, giving all nations equal trading-rights.
• Hay declared that all nations had accepted the Open Door policy, though replies were evasive.

Boxer Rebellion (1900)

• Chinese nationalists (Boxers) attacked foreign settlements and murdered Christian missionaries.
• U.S. troops joined an international force to crush the rebellion.
• China was forced to pay indemnities.

Hay's Second Round of Notes

• Hay wrote a second note to prevent the expeditionary force seizing China, supporting (1) China's territorial integrity and (2) equal and impartial trade.
• Hay's notes influenced U.S. policy on China.
• Rivalries between European powers prevented them from seizing more of China.

Theodore Roosevelt's Big-Stick Policy

• McKinley was assassinated in 1901 and Theodore Roosevelt became president.
• Roosevelt followed the motto to "speak softly and carry a big stick"
• Roosevelt acted boldly and decisively.
• Imperialists applauded Roosevelt's actions while critics opposed breaking the tradition of noninvolvement in global politics.

The Panama Canal

• The U.S. desired a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans through Central America after its growth after the Spanish-American War.
• The U.S. needed to abrogate its joint control with Great Britain.
• The Hay-Pauncefote Treaty, signed in 1901. gave the U.S. permission to build the canal.
• Roosevelt orchestrated a revolt for Panama's independence from Colombia in 1903, because Colombia refused to agree to U.S. terms.
• The Hay-Bunau-Varilla Treaty of 1903 granted the United States rights over the Canal Zone.

Building the Canal

• The Panama Canal work started in 1904, and it was completed in 1914.
• The efforts of George Goethals and Dr. William Gorgas helped complete the work.
• Many were happy with Roosevelt's determination to build the canal while some were unhappy at his tactics. Latin Americans were resentful. The U.S. returned the Canal Zone to Panama in 1999.

The Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine

• The Roosevelt Corollary said that the U.S. would intervene in Latin American countries. Intervention was to occur whenever necessary to maintain the situation.
• The U.S. sent gunboats to Latin American countries to collect customs taxes and satisfy European debts.
• U.S. presidents used the Roosevelt Corollary to justify interventions which made U.S. relations with Latin America turn poor.

East Asia

• Japan and the United States were new imperialist powers in East Asia.
• Relations during Roosevelt's presidency grew competitive.

Russo-Japanese War

• Roosevelt arranged a conference in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, between Japan and Russia to end the Russo-Japanese War.
• Japanese nationalists blamed the U.S. for not granting their country everything they wanted from Russia.

"Gentlemen's Agreement"

• Friction between Japan and the U.S. was because of discrimination against Japanese Americans.
• Roosevelt reached a "gentlemen's agreement" in 1908.
• Japan restricted worker emigration to the U.S. and Roosevelt repealed discriminatory laws in California.

Great White Fleet

• Roosevelt sent battleships on a world cruise to demonstrate U.S. naval power.
• The Japanese government welcomed the fleet in Tokyo Bay.

Root-Takahira Agreement (1908)

• The United States and Japan pledged mutual respect for Pacific possessions. Both also supported the Open Door policy in China.

Peace Efforts

• Roosevelt used his policies to promote peace.
• Roosevelt won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906 for helping end the Russo-Japanese War.
• He directed the Algeciras Conference in Spain, settling claims to Morocco and he directed participation at the Second International Peace Conference at the Hague in 1907, to discuss rules for warfare.

William Howard Taft and Dollar Diplomacy

• Taft adopted a foreign policy dependent on investors' dollars instead of battleships. This policy of promoting US Trade became known as dollar diplomacy.
• Taft’s view was that that private American financial investment in China and Central America would lead to greater stability while simultaneously promoting U.S. business interests.
• His policy was thwarted by anti-imperialism

Dollar Diplomacy in East Asia and Latin America

• Taft wanted U.S. bankers to be included in Chinese railroad agreement but the US was excluded from Manchuria.
• Russia and Japan agreed to treat Manchuria as a jointly held sphere of influence which defied the Open Door policy.

Intervention in Nicaragua

• The United States intervened in Nicaragua's financial affairs in 1911.
• Marines were sent in when a civil war broke out in 1912.
• They remained until 1933.

The Lodge Corollary

• Senator Henry Cabot Lodge introduced the Lodge Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine.
• The resolution stated non-European powers would be excluded from owning territory in the Western Hemisphere.
• Taft opposed the corollary, which also offended Japan and Latin American countries.

Woodrow Wilson and Foreign Affairs

• Wilson promised a moral approach to foreign affairs, opposing imperialism. Wilson opposed the big-stick and dollar-diplomacy policies of his Republican predecessors.

Wilson's Moral Diplomacy

• Wilson aimed to demonstrate respect for other nations' rights and support democracy, correcting wrongful policies.

The Philippines

• Wilson won passage of the Jones Act of 1916.
• The Jones Act granted territorial status, guaranteed a bill of rights and universal male suffrage, and promised independence.

Puerto Rico

• Congress granted U.S. citizenship and limited self-government.

The Panama Canal

• Wilson persuaded Congress to repeal an act exempting U.S. ships from canal tolls.
• This angered American nationalists like Roosevelt and Lodge.

Conciliation Treaties

• William Jennings Bryan, Secretary of State, pursued treaties with international commissions and a one-year cooling-off period.
• Bryan arranged about 30 conciliation treaties.

Military Intervention under Wilson

• Wilson used U.S. marines to straighten out financial and political issues. Wilson intervened more than his predecessors.
• He kept marines in Nicaragua. Wilson also ordered U.S. troops into Haiti in 1915, and the Dominican Republic in 1916. Wilson said such intervention was necessary to maintain security in the region and protect the Panama Canal.

Tampico Incident

• Wilson sent an arms embargo to Vera Cruz and blockade to aid revolutionaries fighting Huerta.
• U.S. sailors were arrested, and Wilson retaliated by ordering the U.S. Navy to occupy Veracruz. War nearly broke out.
• It was adverted when the ABC powers- Argentina, Brazil, and Chile-offered to mediate.

Pancho Villa and the U.S. Expeditionary Force

• Huerta fell from power and General John J. Pershing lead an "expeditionary force" to stop Pancho Villa.
• Villa led raids in US-Mexican border and killed several people in Texas and New Mexico.
• They failed to capture Villa. Wilson withdrew Pershing's troops due to US entry into World War I.