US Government: Foundations and Origins

Chapters 1 & 2: Foundations and Origins

• The Three-Fifths Compromise resolved that only three of every five enslaved people would be counted for representation and taxation purposes.
• Anarchy is the state of having no government or laws.
• The Articles of Confederation suffered from several weaknesses, including a lack of a strong central government.
• Authoritarianism involves strong central power and limited political freedoms.
• Autocracy is a system of government in which one person possesses unlimited power.
• Bicameral refers to a legislative body with two chambers or houses.
• American democracy includes characteristics such as popular sovereignty, limited government, and protection of individual rights.
• A Confederacy is a union of states or nations, where the central authority is subordinate to the states.
• The Constitution establishes the framework of the U.S. government and the rights of its citizens.
• A constitutional convention is a gathering for the purpose of writing or revising a constitution.
• Constitutional government adheres to the principles and limitations outlined in its constitution.
• The Declaration of Independence declares that the 13 American colonies were independent of Great Britain.
• Democracy is the power of the people to take part in government, typically through elected representatives.
• Dictatorship involves rule by a single leader with unrestricted power.
• Divine Right asserts that a monarch's power comes from God.
• The U.S. employs representative democracy where elected officials represent the citizens.
• The system of federalism divides power between a national government and state governments.
• Federalists supported the ratification of the Constitution, while Anti-Federalists opposed it.
• Feudalism is a social system based on land ownership and loyalty.
• Government is the system or group of people governing an organized community.
• The Great Compromise created a bicameral legislature with representation in the House based on population and equal representation in the Senate.
• Limited government has constraints on its power, usually defined by a constitution.
• Magna Carta, signed in 1215, limited the power of the English monarch.
• Monarchy is a form of government in which a single person reigns, typically a king or queen.
• A nation is a large body of people united by common descent, history, culture, or language, inhabiting a particular country or territory.
• Natural Rights are rights inherent to all humans, such as life, liberty, and property.
• "No taxation without representation" was a primary grievance of the American colonists against British rule.
• Oligarchy is a system in which a small group of people controls the government.
• Influential philosophers shaped the origins of democracy.
• Principles of democracy include the rule of law, separation of powers, and protection of minority rights.
• The Federalist Papers advocated for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.
• Ratification is the approval of a constitutional amendment or treaty.
• Representative government is a system where elected officials represent the people.
• Republic is a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives.
• The role of government is to maintain order, provide services, and protect citizens' rights.
• The First Continental Congress responded to the Intolerable Acts, while the Second Continental Congress declared independence.
• Shay's Rebellion highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.
• Social Contract Theory posits that individuals consent to be governed in exchange for protection of their rights.
• Sovereignty means supreme power or authority.
• Types of democracy include direct democracy and representative democracy.
• Unicameral refers to a legislative body with one chamber or house.
• A unitary system concentrates all governmental power in a central government.
• The Virginia Plan favored larger states, while the New Jersey Plan favored smaller states.

Chapter 3: The Constitution

• Amendments are changes or additions to the Constitution.
• Articles are the main sections of the Constitution, outlining the structure and powers of the government.
• The Bill of Rights protects individual freedoms, such as speech, religion, and the press.
• Checks and balances prevent any one branch of government from becoming too powerful.
• A convention is a meeting or assembly for a specific purpose.
• The Elastic Clause grants Congress the power to pass laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers.
• Enumerated powers are specifically listed in the Constitution as powers of the federal government.
• Amendments can be added to the Constitution through formal or informal methods.
• The Incorporation Doctrine applies the Bill of Rights to the states through the 14th Amendment.
• Judicial Review allows courts to determine the constitutionality of laws.
• Jurisdiction is the authority of a court to hear a case.
• Limited government is a principle that governmental power is restricted by law, usually in a written constitution
• Marbury v. Madison established the principle of judicial review.
• The Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause) gives Congress the power to make laws needed to carry out its enumerated powers.
• Popular sovereignty asserts that the people are the ultimate source of governmental power.
• Article I defines the Legislative Branch, Article II defines the Executive Branch, and Article III defines the Judicial Branch.
• Ratification is the process of states formally approving a constitutional amendment or treaty.
• Separation of powers divides governmental power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
• State constitutions outline the structure and powers of state governments.
• The Supremacy Clause establishes that the Constitution and federal laws are the supreme law of the land.

Chapters 15 & 16: Civil Liberties and Civil Rights

• Affirmative Action involves policies designed to address past and present discrimination.
• Amendments are formal changes to the Constitution.
• Bakke v. Regents of the University of CA addressed affirmative action in college admissions.
• Lawful arrests require probable cause and adherence to due process.
• Discrimination involves treating individuals differently based on certain characteristics.
• Due Process of Law ensures fairness and justice in legal proceedings.
• Eminent Domain allows the government to take private property for public use with just compensation.
• Engel v. Vitale addressed the issue of school prayer and the Establishment Clause.
• The Establishment Clause prohibits the government from establishing a religion.
• The Exclusionary Rule prohibits the use of illegally obtained evidence in court.
• Fisher v. University of Texas concerned affirmative action policies in college admissions.
• The Free Exercise Clause protects individuals' right to practice their religion freely.
• A Gag Order restricts the release of information about a case.
• Gideon v. Wainwright established the right to counsel for indigent defendants.
• Grutter v. Bollinger addressed affirmative action in law school admissions.
• The 14th Amendment is important because it guarantees equal protection and due process under the law.
• Jim Crow Laws enforced racial segregation in the Southern states.
• Korematsu v. United States concerned the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II.
• Lawrence v. Texas invalidated laws criminalizing same-sex sexual conduct.
• Loving v. Virginia struck down laws prohibiting interracial marriage.
• Majority rule means that decisions are made based on what most people want.
• Mapp v. Ohio applied the exclusionary rule to state courts.
• New Jersey v. TLO established a lower standard for searches in schools.
• Obergefell v. Hodges legalized same-sex marriage nationwide.
• Petition is the right to make a request of the government.
• Prior Restraint (censorship) is government prevention of publication.
• Probable Cause is a reasonable basis to believe a crime has been committed.
• Procedural Due Process ensures fair procedures in legal proceedings.
• Racial profiling involves targeting individuals based on their race or ethnicity.
• The Right to Bear Arms, and gun control relates to the Second Amendment.
• Right to Privacy and national security concerns the protection of personal information.
• Roe v. Wade (overturned) established a woman's right to an abortion, but was later overturned.
• Schenk v. US addressed the limits of free speech during wartime.
• Seditious speech advocates overthrowing the government.
• Selective Incorporation applies the Bill of Rights to the states on a case-by-case basis.
• Slander/Libel are types of defamation involving false statements that harm someone's reputation.
• Speech Plus combines words with actions and may be subject to certain restrictions.
• Strict Scrutiny is a high level of judicial review used in cases involving fundamental rights.
• Substantive Due Process protects fundamental rights not specifically listed in the Constitution.
• Symbolic Speech expresses an idea through conduct.
• Tinker v. Des Moines protected students' right to symbolic speech in schools.
• Texas v. Johnson protected flag burning as a form of symbolic speech.
• Examples of unprotected speech include incitement to violence and defamation.
• The Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed discriminatory voting practices.

Chapter 4: Federalism

• The 10th Amendment reserves powers not delegated to the federal government to the states.
• Federalism has both advantages and disadvantages regarding efficiency and responsiveness.
• The Commerce Clause gives Congress the power to regulate interstate commerce.
• Concurrent powers are shared by both the federal and state governments.
• Delegated powers ("expressed," "enumerated") are specifically granted to the federal government.
• The Extradition Clause requires states to return fugitives to the state where they committed the crime.
• Federal grants provide funding to state and local governments.
• Federalism has evolved through different eras, including cooperative, dual, and new federalism.
• Gibbons v. Ogden affirmed Congress's power to regulate interstate commerce.
• Implied powers are not specifically listed in the Constitution but are "necessary and proper" to carry out enumerated powers.
• Inherent Powers are powers that are naturally derived from the position of the government.
• Interstate compacts are agreements between states.
• Mandates are requirements imposed on states by the federal government.
• The nationalist position emphasizes the power of the federal government.
• Preemption occurs when federal law overrides state law.
• Reserved powers are those not delegated to the federal government or prohibited to the states, reserved to the states or the people.
• The significance of FDR and the New Deal greatly expanded the role of the federal government.
• The states' rights position emphasizes the power of the state governments.
• United States v. Lopez limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause.
• United States v. Morrison limited Congress's power under the Commerce Clause in cases of violence against women.

Chapters 17 & 18: Political Parties, Voting, and Elections

• Accuracy, transparency, trustworthiness, and impartiality are essential qualities of reliable news sources.
• Campaign contributions are funds donated to political campaigns.
• Centrists hold moderate political views.
• Citizens United v. Federal Elections Commission has implications for campaign finance regulations.
• Down-ballot voting is when a voter selects candidates in contests below the top of the ballot.
• The general election is the main election in which candidates compete for public office.
• Ideology is a system of ideas and ideals that forms the basis of political and economic theory and policy.
• Liberal, Conservative, and Moderate Beliefs are on a spectrum from left to right, respectively.
• Lobbying involves advocating for specific policies to government officials
• Media roles include acting as a watchdog, gatekeeper, scorekeeper, and agenda setter.
• Minor parties ("3rd parties") are political parties other than the two major parties.
• A platform is a set of principles or goals that a political party supports.
• Political Action Committees (PACs) and SuperPACs raise and spend money to influence elections.
• Political parties are organized groups that seek to win elections and control government.
• The political spectrum ranges from left (liberal) to right (conservative).
• The primary election is held to select candidates to run in the general election.
• Public opinion reflects the attitudes and beliefs of the population.
• Reasons why minor parties rarely win elections often relate to funding and recognition.
• The significance of minor parties often lies in bringing attention to specific issues.
• Special Interest Groups advocate for specific policies that benefit their members.
• Soft Money refers to contributions made outside the limits and prohibitions of federal campaign finance law.

Chapters 13 & 14: Judicial Branch

• Acquittal is the finding of not guilty in a criminal trial.
• Appellate courts hear appeals from lower courts, while district courts are the trial courts of the federal system.
• Arraignment is the stage in a criminal case where the defendant is formally charged and enters a plea.
• Bush v. Gore resolved a dispute over the 2000 presidential election results.
• Certiorari is a Writ of…, Petition for the writ of…, ordering a lower court to send a case to the Supreme Court for review.
• The Chief Justice is responsible for opinion writing and presides over the Supreme Court, currently John Roberts.
• Civil law deals with disputes between individuals or organizations.
• Common law is based on judicial precedent rather than statutes.
• Constitutional law concerns the interpretation and application of the Constitution.
• Criminal law deals with offenses against society.
• There is ongoing debate over the life terms of Supreme Court Justices.
• Federal Courts make a part of the judicial branch of the U.S. Federal Government
• A grand jury decides whether there is enough evidence to bring criminal charges.
• Indictment is a formal accusation of a crime by a grand jury.
• Judicial Activism involves interpreting the Constitution to address contemporary issues, while Judicial Restraint emphasizes deference to the other branches of government.
• Jurisdiction can be Federal, exclusive, original, or appellate, each with specific reasons.
• The length of term, demographic information, and history of the court are significant aspects of the Supreme Court.
• Mapp v. Ohio involved the exclusionary rule and search and seizure.
• Mistrial is a trial that is terminated and declared void due to prejudicial error or other extraordinary circumstance.
• Nomination and Confirmation of Supreme Court Justices are political processes
• Opinions can be Majority, Dissenting, or Concurring
• Plea Bargain involves negotiations between the prosecution and the defense.
• Precedent is a court decision that is considered as authority for deciding subsequent cases involving identical or similar facts, or similar legal issues.
• The Rule of 4 requires four Supreme Court justices to agree to hear a case.
• The Rule of Law is the legal principle that law should govern a nation, as opposed to being governed by arbitrary decisions of individual government officials.
• Stare Decisis means "to stand by things decided" and refers to the principle of following precedent.
• Statutory law is created by legislative bodies.
• The Supreme Court currently has a conservative majority.
• Verdict is the decision of a jury or a judge.
• "Originalism" interprets the Constitution based on its original meaning, while "Living Constitution" adapts its meaning to contemporary values.
• Jury members are selected from the community, and failure to appear may result in penalties.

Chapters 5, 6, & 7: Legislative Branch

• Apportionment is the process of allocating congressional seats to each state based on its population.
• Bicameral legislatures have two chambers.
• Cloture is a procedure used to end a filibuster in the Senate.
• Committees review bills and conduct hearings.
• Congress checks and balances the President through oversight, impeachment, and the power to override vetoes.
• Congressional districts are geographic areas represented by a member of the House of Representatives.
• The Connecticut (Great) Compromise created a bicameral legislature with representation based on population in the House and equal representation in the Senate.
• The Senate has constitutional requirements like age (30 years), citizenship (9 years), and residency, and the House of Representatives has constitutional requirements like age (25 years), citizenship (7 years), and residency.
• A filibuster can be used in the Senate to delay or block a vote on a bill.
• Gerrymandering involves drawing congressional district lines to favor one party or group over another.
• A bill becomes a law through a process of introduction, committee review, debate, and votes in both houses of Congress.
• Important positions in the Senate and House have specific powers.
• Impeachment is the process of charging a government official with misconduct.
• A junket is a trip taken by members of Congress, often at public expense, to gather information related to their legislative duties
• The Necessary and Proper Clause/Elastic Clause grants Congress the power to make laws "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers.
• Congress is responsible for making laws, declaring war, and overseeing the other branches of government.
• Riders are amendments added to a bill that have little or no connection to the subject matter of the bill.
• Senators serve 6-year terms, while House members serve 2-year terms; there are no term limits for either.
• The State of the Union Address is an annual speech delivered by the President to Congress.
• Types of committees include standing, select, conference, and joint committees.
• Unicameral legislatures have one chamber.
• The upper house is the Senate, and the lower house is the House of Representatives.
• The President can veto legislation passed by Congress.
• Legislation is recommended by various sources, including members of Congress, the President, and interest groups.

Chapters 9, 10, & 11: Executive Branch

• The Bureaucracy makes up the agencies and departments of executive branch.
• Most Presidents have had characteristics such as prior political experience and strong leadership skills.
• The President uses various means of communication to connect with the people.
• Constitutional qualifications for President include being a natural-born citizen, at least 35 years old, and a resident of the U.S. for 14 years.
• The Electoral College is a body of people representing the states of the US, who formally cast votes for the election of the president and vice president; it was created because the founding fathers did not believe the population could directly vote for a president.
• Electing the President involves the Electoral College system.
• An executive agreement is an international agreement made by the President without the need for Senate ratification.
• The Executive Branch enforces laws and carries out policies.
• The source of Authority for Executive Power is the Constitution
• Presidents serve 4-year terms and are limited to two terms due to 22nd amendment; history of the term limit is rooted in the fear of monarchy.
• The Order of succession following the President is Vice President, Speaker of the House, President Pro Tempore of the Senate, and then cabinet members in order of position.
• The President's Cabinet is composed of the heads of the executive departments, who advise the President on policy matters.
• The President appoints officials, subject to Senate confirmation.
• The President has roles such as chief executive, commander-in-chief, and head of state.
• Treaties are formal agreements with foreign nations, requiring Senate ratification.
• Vice Presidential terms align with Presidential terms, with similar limitations.