Urology: Prostate Cancer and Urinary Conditions

Prostate Cancer and Urinary Incontinence

• Prostate cancer primarily arises from the peripheral zone, followed by the transitional zone.
• Urinary incontinence can be treated with Kegel exercises to strengthen pelvic floor muscles.
• The most significant risk factor for prostate cancer is age, with genetic predisposition also playing a crucial role.
• Most common stone type observed in urolithiasis is calcium oxalate.

Urinary Tract and Kidney Conditions

• A recurrent urinary tract infection is defined as occurring twice in 6 months or three times in a year.
• TUR syndrome occurs due to hyponatremia.
• Normal adult urination frequency is considered to be 6-8 times per day.

Epididymis, Sperm Production, and Embryonic Kidney Development

• The vas deferens originates from the tail of the epididymis.
• Oligozoospermia is defined as having less than 15 million sperm per milliliter.
• The final stage in urinary embryonic development is the metanephros.

Penile Anomalies and Bladder Carcinoma Risk Factors

• Common penile anomalies include hypospadias, epispadias, and penile torsion.
• Risk factors for bladder carcinoma encompass smoking, chronic irritation, and exposure to carcinogenic chemicals.

Types and Diagnosis of Pyelonephritis

• There are two main types of pyelonephritis: acute and chronic.
• Clinical presentations for these types vary; acute is typically characterized by fever and flank pain, while chronic may show less intense symptoms but leads to renal damage.

Tumor Markers and Bladder Biopsy Techniques

• Common tumor markers include PSA, alpha-fetoprotein, and LDH.
• A bladder biopsy is conducted through a cystoscope for direct visualization and sampling.

Stone Formation Inhibitors and Urinary Catheter Use

• Inhibitors of stone formation include citrate, magnesium, and pyrophosphate.
• Urinary catheters are lubricated to prevent trauma to the urethra and reduce the risk of infection.

Congenital Anomalies and Obesity-Related Cancers

• Prenatal ultrasound can detect several congenital anomalies, such as renal agenesis and hypospadias.
• Obesity and hypertension are associated with increased risks for several cancers, including renal cell carcinoma.

Testicular and Urethral Disorders

• Cryptorchidism increases risks for testicular torsion, inguinal hernia, and testicular cancer.
• In cases of ureteral injury, diagnosis involves imaging studies following trauma, and treatment can range from conservative management to surgical intervention.

Common Causes of Acute Scrotal Pain

• Conditions included in acute scrotum: testicular torsion, acute epididymitis, and Fournier's gangrene.

Hormonal Levels in Klinefelter Syndrome

• Klinefelter syndrome presents with elevated LH and FSH levels and decreased testosterone.

Urological Treatment Principles

• Treatment principles for kidney trauma include conservative management (monitoring and medications) and surgical intervention for significant injuries.
• Erectile dysfunction treatment follows a step-wise approach: starting with 5-PDE inhibitors like Sildenafil.

Risk Factors and Definitions

• Non-selective alpha-blockers can cause orthostatic hypotension and include medications like Doxazosin and Terazosin.
• Enuresis is considered physiological up until the age of 5 years.