Physiology exam prep 3
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Questions and Answers

What is the term for increased urine output?

  • Oliguria
  • Hypersthenuria
  • Hyposthenuria
  • Polyuria (correct)

    • What is the possible cause of reddish-brown urine?

  • Hematuria (correct)
  • Pyelitis
  • Urinary tract obstruction
  • Bilirubinuria

    • What is the term for decreased urine density?

  • Oliguria
  • Hyposthenuria (correct)
  • Hypersthenuria
  • Polyuria

    • What is the normal appearance of fresh horse urine?

    <p>Cloudy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the possible cause of yellowish-green urine?

    <p>Bilirubinuria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for increased urine density?

    <p>Hypersthenuria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the possible cause of ammonia-smelling urine?

    <p>Cystitis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for decreased urine output?

    <p>Oliguria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of cloudy fresh urine?

    <p>Pathological components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a possible cause of oliguria?

    <p>Hyperadrenocorticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of reddish-brown urine appearing at the end of urination?

    <p>The bleeding is in the bladder</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of hypersthenuria?

    <p>Increased salt concentration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the possible cause of putrefaction-smelling urine?

    <p>Gangrenous processes in the urinary tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of cloudy fresh urine?

    <p>It contains pathological components</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a possible cause of yellowish-green urine?

    <p>Bilirubinuria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of ammonia-smelling urine?

    <p>It is a sign of a urinary tract infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of hyposthenuria?

    <p>Decreased urine density</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the neural regulation of urine excretion related to?

    <p>The volume of urine output</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to blood flow when blood viscosity increases?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the suckling reflex in newborns?

    <p>To provide immediate access to nutrition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of resistance in blood vessels is due to the elasticity of large arteries?

    <p>Elastic Resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following reflexes is an example of a species-specific reflex?

    <p>Startle reflex in humans</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to vascular resistance when blood vessel diameter increases?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of conditioned reflexes?

    <p>They are adaptive responses that can be developed through experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of lengthening blood vessels on blood flow?

    <p>It decreases flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following reflexes involves the cerebral cortex?

    <p>Feeling hungry at a regular mealtime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the total cross-sectional area of blood vessels affect resistance?

    <p>It reduces resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the fear response to a specific sound after a traumatic event?

    <p>It is a labile response that can diminish over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to vascular resistance as arteries age?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the anxiety response before public speaking?

    <p>It is a conditioned response, unique to the individual's experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines blood flow in blood vessels?

    <p>Pressure difference at the beginning and end of the vessel</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of reflexes are characterized by a permanent and clear connection between action on the receptor and a certain response?

    <p>Unconditioned reflexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the startle reflex in humans?

    <p>To prepare the body for potential danger</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula to calculate the flow rate of blood in a vessel?

    <p>Q = (P1 - P2) / R</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most variable factor that affects total resistance in the circulatory system?

    <p>Peripheral resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the blinking reflex?

    <p>To protect the eyes from potential harm</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of red blood cells in the human body?

    <p>Gas exchange and pH maintenance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of saliva that provides humoral immunity?

    <p>Lysozyme, an antibacterial agent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of platelets in the blood?

    <p>Blood clotting and wound healing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?

    <p>Defense against pathogens and foreign substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pH range of saliva in ruminants?

    <p>8.0-10.0</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the daily production of saliva in cows?

    <p>50-100 liters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of the total body mass is water in adult animals?

    <p>65%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens if the body loses 20-30% of its water?

    <p>Death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of water in the brain?

    <p>85%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of an increase in capillary pressure?

    <p>Increased edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to lipids in the intestinal mucosa?

    <p>They are reformed into triglycerides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What percentage of lipids are absorbed in the lymph?

    <p>70%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a decrease in the concentration of plasma proteins?

    <p>Increased edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of bile acids in lipid absorption?

    <p>To facilitate the absorption of fatty acids and glycerol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the abnormal accumulation of interstitial fluid accompanied by swelling?

    <p>Edema</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of lipids absorbed in the blood as low and high density lipoproteins?

    <p>They take part in different synthesis processes in the liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lysozyme in saliva?

    <p>to perform a protective function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What triggers the secretion of saliva in ruminants?

    <p>volatile fatty acids in the forestomachs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference in saliva secretion between ruminants and horses?

    <p>timing of saliva secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the parotid salivary gland in ruminants?

    <p>secretes saliva continuously</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of water in the body related to enzyme reactions?

    <p>it acts as a solvent</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of intracellular fluid in the body?

    <p>40% of the total fluid in the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the countercurrent mechanism in the nephron loop?

    <p>To produce concentrated urine in the collecting ducts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the osmotic pressure of the urine in the descending loop as water travels from the ultrafiltrate back into the tissue fluid and further into the blood?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the epithelial cells in the ascending loop?

    <p>To reabsorb Na and Cl ions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the countercurrent mechanism in the nephron loop being 'turned off'?

    <p>Kidney failure occurs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the blood in the vasa recta as it descends into the renal medulla?

    <p>It gains NaCl and loses H2O</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the Na ions in the countercurrent mechanism?

    <p>They promote water reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the nephron loop in the regulation of internal osmotic pressure?

    <p>To maintain a constant osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What happens to the concentration gradient in the renal medulla as the blood in the vasa recta descends and ascends?

    <p>It remains constant</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the descending loop being highly permeable to water?

    <p>It enables water reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the countercurrent mechanism in the nephron loop in maintaining a constant osmotic pressure?

    <p>It maintains a constant osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron has an axon split into two branches, with one branch going to the periphery and the other to the spinal cord?

    <p>Pseudounipolar neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased osmotic pressure on the body?

    <p>Decreased urine excretion and increased blood osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system is responsible for innervating internal organs and blood vessels?

    <p>Autonomic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>To increase blood pressure and decrease urine excretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron has only one process that includes both an axon and a dendrite?

    <p>Unipolar neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased blood volume on osmotic pressure regulation?

    <p>Decreased ADH and increased urine excretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the nervous system includes the brain and spinal cord?

    <p>Central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>To decrease heart rate and increase digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of neuron has two processes, an axon and a dendrite, that extend from each end of the cell body?

    <p>Bipolar neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increased ADH on urine excretion?

    <p>Decreased urine excretion and increased blood osmotic pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the heart in the circulatory system?

    <p>To pump blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the contraction of the atria in the heart?

    <p>Atrial systole</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of capillaries in the circulatory system?

    <p>To exchange substances between the blood and intercellular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in total cross-sectional area of blood vessels on blood flow velocity?

    <p>It decreases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of veins in the circulatory system?

    <p>To regulate blood flow to the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on stroke volume?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between blood flow velocity and total cross-sectional area of blood vessels?

    <p>They are inversely proportional</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary factor that determines blood flow rate in the circulatory system?

    <p>Stroke volume</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a decrease in blood vessel diameter on blood flow velocity?

    <p>It increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the regulation of blood flow by the heart?

    <p>To ensure equal distribution of oxygen and nutrients to all tissues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parathyroid hormone?

    <p>To increase calcium levels in the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of removing the parathyroid glands?

    <p>Death due to suffocation within 24 hours</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of group C nerve fibers?

    <p>They are small, unmyelinated fibers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of oligodendrocytes?

    <p>To form myelin in the central nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of adrenergic neurons?

    <p>They release adrenaline or norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increasing the diameter of a nerve fiber?

    <p>The conduction velocity increases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of Schwann cells?

    <p>To form myelin in the peripheral nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the classification of nerve fibers based on their function?

    <p>Somatic, autonomic, sensory, and secretory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of group Aα nerve fibers?

    <p>They are large, myelinated fibers involved in proprioception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of administering calcium supplements to cows prior to calving?

    <p>It slows down the natural calcium metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the sebaceous glands in the skin?

    <p>To secrete sebum for skin lubrication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the atrichial sweat glands in the skin?

    <p>To perform thermoregulation and excretion of metabolic end products</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of cells are responsible for actively transporting sodium to the lumen of the sweat gland?

    <p>Clear cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the excretory part of the sweat gland?

    <p>To reabsorb Na, K, and Cl from sweat into the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the composition of sweat in terms of water and dry matter?

    <p>99% water, 1% dry matter</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which animals have atrichial sweat glands on their paw pads and noses?

    <p>Cats and dogs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the receptor function of the skin?

    <p>To detect and respond to stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of aldosterone in the sweat gland?

    <p>To facilitate the reabsorption of Na, K, and Cl from sweat into the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hypothalamo-hypophyseal system?

    <p>Regulation of physiological functions through the hypophysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which hormone released by the hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to release thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)?

    <p>Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which endocrine organ is regulated by the hypothalamo-hypophyseal system and produces glucocorticoids, androgens, and mineralocorticoids?

    <p>Adrenal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the bundle of nerve fibers that connects the hypothalamus to the neurohypophysis?

    <p>Hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the anterior pituitary in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal system?

    <p>Production of hormones that regulate endocrine organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hypothalamus in the regulation of physiological functions?

    <p>Coordination of neural and humoral regulation of physiological functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of digestion is characteristic of unicellular and lower multicellular organisms?

    <p>Intracellular type</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the growth hormone released by the anterior pituitary?

    <p>Influence on growth, cell division, and metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of proteases in the digestive system?

    <p>Breaking down proteins into amino acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the cofactor in compound enzymes?

    <p>Assisting in biochemical transformations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pH range required for cellulolytic bacteria to break down cellulose?

    <p>Above 6.2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of protozoa in the biological food processing of ruminants?

    <p>Catching, digesting bacteria, and using them in protein synthesis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the 'helper molecule' that assists in biochemical transformations in compound enzymes?

    <p>Cofactor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of enzyme is made up of protein amino acids?

    <p>Simple enzyme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of amylolytic bacteria in the biological food processing of ruminants?

    <p>Breaking down carbohydrates into monosaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the specificity of the enzyme in biological reactions?

    <p>The protein</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary location where membranal digestion takes place?

    <p>Small intestine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the clumping together of red blood cells?

    <p>Agglutination</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of people who have the Rhesus factor?

    <p>85%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of determining the Rhesus factor?

    <p>To prevent agglutination reactions in transfusions and pregnancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the two types of extracellular digestion in the digestive tract?

    <p>Cavity digestion and membranal digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the substances on the surface of red blood cells that can trigger an immune response?

    <p>Agglutinogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of mononuclear serums anti-A and anti-B in determining blood group?

    <p>To identify the presence of agglutinogens</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of agglutination in blood transfusion?

    <p>The red blood cells are destroyed</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>To increase the tone of the gut and velocity of its contractions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC) in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>To act as electrical pacemakers and mediate enteric motor neurotransmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the submucosal (Meissner's) plexus in the gastrointestinal tract?

    <p>To regulate local secretion and absorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of agglutination in the presence of control serum?

    <p>The person is Rh(+) based on the presence of rhesus agglutinogen in erythrocytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of no agglutination in the control serum?

    <p>The person is Rh(-)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the blood group system of cats?

    <p>Simple blood group system with A, B, and AB groups</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the importance of dogs with negative blood type?

    <p>Their blood can be given to dogs with any blood type in emergencies</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of enzymes in food processing?

    <p>To convert polymers into monomers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the nephron in the kidney?

    <p>To filter blood plasma and form urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which process occurs in the glomerulus of the nephron?

    <p>Filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the fluid and solutes that enter the capsular space of the nephron?

    <p>Tubular fluid</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following increases filtration intensity?

    <p>Increased blood pressure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary site of reabsorption in the nephron?

    <p>Proximal tubule and nephron loop</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism by which the nephron regulates the amount of substances reabsorbed?

    <p>Neuro-humoral regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of increased oncotic pressure on filtration?

    <p>Decreased filtration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following occurs in the distal tubule and collecting ducts?

    <p>Reabsorption</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which the nephron forms urine from blood plasma?

    <p>Urine formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the podocytes in the nephron?

    <p>To filter blood plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term that describes the moment when the left ventricle contracts and pushes blood into the aorta?

    <p>Ictus cordis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following heart sounds results from the closure of the semilunar valves?

    <p>S2</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the law that states that the force of contraction is proportional to the initial length of the cardiac muscle within physiological limits?

    <p>Starling's law</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters slows down and weakens the heartbeat?

    <p>Acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the type of regulation that is provided by intracardiac autoregulatory mechanisms and is also seen in isolated, denervated hearts?

    <p>Intracardiac regulation mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of baroreceptors in the heart?

    <p>To sense changes in pressure or stretching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in myocardial stretch on the force of contraction of the heart?

    <p>It increases the force of contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a neural regulation mechanism of the heart?

    <p>Parasympathetic nervous system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the activation of the sympathetic nervous system on the heart?

    <p>It increases the force of contraction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the physiological significance of the connection between secretion of saliva and food intake?

    <p>It helps to lubricate food and facilitate swallowing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of lysozyme in saliva?

    <p>Kills microorganisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main inorganic substance found in ruminant saliva?

    <p>Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of saliva in the rumen?

    <p>To regulate pH and maintain optimal moisture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why does the pH of the rumen decrease when the amount of grain in the animal feed is increased?

    <p>Grain is fermented faster, producing more volatile fatty acids</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of conditioned reflexes on salivary secretion?

    <p>Increases salivary secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of water in saliva?

    <p>98%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of albumins in saliva?

    <p>To maintain protein structure</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of urea in saliva?

    <p>To participate in nitrogen metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of sympathetic nerves on salivary secretion?

    <p>Decreases salivary secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of saliva in the mouth?

    <p>To facilitate sound modulation and taste</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the countercurrent mechanism in the kidney?

    <p>To produce concentrated urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which substances are transported from the blood into the urine?

    <p>Secretion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the concentration of a substance in the blood above which the kidneys begin to excrete it into the urine?

    <p>Renal threshold</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of tubular reabsorption?

    <p>To reabsorb useful substances back into the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the ascending loop in the nephron?

    <p>To absorb Na ions from the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the countercurrent mechanism in the nephron loop?

    <p>Concentrated urine is produced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for substances that are never reabsorbed back into the bloodstream in nephron tubules, regardless of their concentration in the blood?

    <p>Threshold-free substances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the collecting duct in the nephron?

    <p>To produce concentrated urine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of tubular secretion in the nephron?

    <p>Waste products are eliminated from the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the descending loop in the nephron?

    <p>To absorb water from the filtrate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the mouth cavity in the digestive tract?

    <p>Food sorting and initiation of reflexes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main location of the center of swallowing in the body?

    <p>Medulla oblongata</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of calcium in the body, particularly in growing organisms?

    <p>Maintenance of bone tissue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of calcium present in bone tissue?

    <p>99%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of lack of irritation of receptors in the mouth cavity?

    <p>No swallowing movement</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of motor reflexes in the digestive tract?

    <p>Initiation of swallowing and motility of the digestive tract</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of secretory reflexes in the digestive tract?

    <p>Induction of excretion of digestive juices</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of calcium during the second half of pregnancy and lactation?

    <p>It is especially important to take it in sufficient amounts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the percentage of calcium present in the teeth?

    <p>A significant amount, but not specified</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of calcium for growing organisms?

    <p>It is especially important for growing organisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of calcium in the body?

    <p>To activate enzymes such as pancreatic lipase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of excessive calcium feeding in animals?

    <p>Interference with the absorption of minerals like zinc</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a sign of calcium deficiency?

    <p>Increased muscle and nerve excitability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary component of gastric juice in the stomach?

    <p>Gastric proteases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the pH range of gastric juice in dogs, pigs, and humans?

    <p>pH 1.0-2.5</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the stomach in monogastric animals?

    <p>A site for chemical digestion with enzymes and HCl</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the 'real' stomach in polygastric animals?

    <p>Abomasum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of pepsin in gastric juice?

    <p>To break down proteins</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of oxalates on calcium availability in forages?

    <p>Decreased calcium availability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between calcium availability and bone formation in young animals?

    <p>Decreased calcium availability leads to incomplete bone formation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the heart rate is regulated in the humoral regulation mechanism?

    <p>Through the release of epinephrine and acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the mechanism by which the heart regulates its own contraction force, velocity, and frequency?

    <p>Intrinsic autoregulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following hormones increases the heart rate and contractile force of the heart muscle?

    <p>Epinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the formula for calculating cardiac output?

    <p>CO = HR × SV</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following mechanisms adjusts the heart rate and stroke volume by changing the force, velocity, duration, and extent of contraction?

    <p>Local intrinsic mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the mechanism by which the heart muscle contraction is regulated in response to changes in the degree of stretch of cardiac muscle fibers?

    <p>Frank-Starling mechanism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the epithelium in the nasal passages?

    <p>To sense odors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the air that remains in the airways and does not participate in gas exchange?

    <p>Anatomic dead space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In horses, where does starch break down to glucose?

    <p>In the large blind sac at the entrance of the esophagus, through bacterial fermentation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the digestive system of birds and that of other animals?

    <p>The division of 'normal' stomach functions between other parts of the gastrointestinal system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of strong fermentation in the horse's stomach?

    <p>Colic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pancreatic juice in the digestive system of birds?

    <p>To facilitate the digestion of carbohydrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the sympathetic nervous system increases the force of cardiac muscle contraction?

    <p>Releasing epinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of parathyroid hormone in the body?

    <p>It increases the blood Ca level, but lowers the blood P level.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of an increase in body temperature on heart rate?

    <p>It increases heart rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of rumination (cud-chewing) in ruminants?

    <p>To reduce the particle size of feed and increase rumen volume.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the relationship between preload and stroke volume?

    <p>Starling's law of the heart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the omasum in the forestomach?

    <p>To regulate the passage of feed to the abomasum.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a high level of potassium ions in the blood on heart function?

    <p>It slows down heart rate and reduces contractility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which the parasympathetic nervous system regulates heart function?

    <p>Releasing acetylcholine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the fate of the majority of methane (CH4) produced in the forestomach?

    <p>It is expelled through belching.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the parasympathetic nerve (vagus) in forestomach motility?

    <p>It stimulates motility.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the regulation of cardiac function by intrinsic molecular mechanisms, without changes in cardiac fiber length?

    <p>Homometric regulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of removing the parathyroid glands in animals?

    <p>The animal will die within 24 hours due to respiratory failure.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of conducting zone in respiration?

    <p>to warm and humidify the incoming air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of decreased assimilation processes in an organism?

    <p>slowed down growth and development</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which organ transforms ammonia into urea, which is then excreted in urine?

    <p>liver</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of basal metabolism?

    <p>to maintain life processes during rest</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of sweat glands in excretion?

    <p>excreting end products of protein metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the liver in the excretion process?

    <p>transforming ammonia into urea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of oncotic pressure in the blood plasma?

    <p>To ensure the normal exchange of water and salts in the capillaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are temperature-sensitive receptors localized?

    <p>In the CNS, skin, and some internal organs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of blood plasma proteins?

    <p>To create oncotic pressure in the blood plasma</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of evaporation of 1 L of water?

    <p>Requires 580 kcal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of muscles in thermoregulation?

    <p>To produce heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of radiation in thermoregulation?

    <p>To lose heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the gastrointestinal tract in thermoregulation?

    <p>To produce heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the liver in thermoregulation?

    <p>To produce heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the skin in thermoregulation?

    <p>To lose heat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of an increase in oncotic pressure?

    <p>An increase in the flow of solvent through the semipermeable membranes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Urine Characteristics and Composition

    • Urine volume can vary, with polyuria (increased urine output) often accompanied by polydipsia (excessive thirst)
    • Oliguria (decreased urine output) and anuria (no urine output) can occur in cases of severe dehydration, shock, urinary tract obstruction, acute kidney failure, and hypoadrenocorticism

    Urine Color

    • Red or reddish-brown urine can indicate hematuria (blood in urine)
    • Timing of red color during urination can indicate source of bleeding: end of urination (bladder), beginning (urethra or genital organs), or entire urination (kidneys, hemoglobinuria, or myoglobinuria)
    • Yellowish-green urine can indicate bilirubinuria (bilirubin in urine)

    Urine Transparency

    • Fresh urine is typically transparent
    • Cloudy urine can indicate pathological components, such as pus
    • Horse urine is normally cloudy
    • Urine can become cloudy during storage due to crystal formation and bacterial growth

    Urine Smell

    • Fresh urine with an ammonia smell can indicate pathology, such as cystitis, pyelitis, pyelonephritis, or urinary retention
    • Fresh urine with an acetone smell can indicate hyperketonemia due to ketosis or diabetes
    • Fresh urine with a putrid smell can indicate gangrenous processes in the urinary tract

    Urine Density

    • Hypersthenuria: increased urine density due to high salt concentration, with less impact from proteins
    • Hyposthenuria: decreased urine density

    Urine Characteristics and Composition

    • Urine volume can vary, with polyuria (increased urine output) often accompanied by polydipsia (excessive thirst)
    • Oliguria (decreased urine output) and anuria (no urine output) can occur in cases of severe dehydration, shock, urinary tract obstruction, acute kidney failure, and hypoadrenocorticism

    Urine Color

    • Red or reddish-brown urine can indicate hematuria (blood in urine)
    • Timing of red color during urination can indicate source of bleeding: end of urination (bladder), beginning (urethra or genital organs), or entire urination (kidneys, hemoglobinuria, or myoglobinuria)
    • Yellowish-green urine can indicate bilirubinuria (bilirubin in urine)

    Urine Transparency

    • Fresh urine is typically transparent
    • Cloudy urine can indicate pathological components, such as pus
    • Horse urine is normally cloudy
    • Urine can become cloudy during storage due to crystal formation and bacterial growth

    Urine Smell

    • Fresh urine with an ammonia smell can indicate pathology, such as cystitis, pyelitis, pyelonephritis, or urinary retention
    • Fresh urine with an acetone smell can indicate hyperketonemia due to ketosis or diabetes
    • Fresh urine with a putrid smell can indicate gangrenous processes in the urinary tract

    Urine Density

    • Hypersthenuria: increased urine density due to high salt concentration, with less impact from proteins
    • Hyposthenuria: decreased urine density

    Factors Affecting Vascular Resistance

    • Blood viscosity: thicker blood increases resistance and decreases flow
    • Blood vessel diameter: smaller diameters increase resistance and decrease flow
    • Blood vessel length: longer vessels increase resistance and decrease flow
    • Vascular wall properties: more elastic walls lower resistance, while more contractile walls increase resistance
    • Total cross-sectional area: larger areas reduce resistance

    Types of Resistance

    • Elastic resistance: due to elasticity of large arteries, maintains continuous blood flow and reduces heart workload
    • Peripheral resistance: in smaller arteries and arterioles, changes in diameter greatly impact blood flow
    • Aging and vascular resistance: decreased elasticity with age increases resistance and affects continuous blood flow

    Blood Flow

    • Flow rate determined by pressure difference and resistance (Q = (P1 –P2) / R)
    • Greater pressure drop and lower resistance result in higher blood flow velocity
    • Blood flows in the direction of lowest pressure

    Unconditioned and Conditioned Reflexes

    Unconditioned Reflexes

    • Innate adaptive responses, same among species
    • Examples: suckling reflex in newborns, patellar (knee-jerk) reflex, startle reflex in humans, blinking reflex
    • Stable adaptation reactions that persist throughout life
    • Realized through any part of the CNS

    Conditioned Reflexes

    • Acquired adaptive responses during life
    • Examples: salivating at the sound of a bell (Pavlov's dogs), fear of a specific sound after a traumatic event
    • Labile responses that last only as long as the conditions exist
    • Realized only through the highest parts of the CNS

    Blood Composition and Functions

    • Composed of plasma and cells (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets)
    • Functions:
      • Transport function (respiratory gases, biologically active compounds)
      • Ensuring metabolism (supplying nutrients, removing waste products)
      • Thermoregulatory function (transferring heat, equalizing temperature)
      • Maintaining homeostasis (regulating pH, temperature, solute concentration)
      • Protective function (antibodies, antitoxins, immune cells)

    Saliva Composition and Functions

    • Composed of water, enzymes, mucin, lysozyme, albumins, and urea
    • Functions:
      • Dissolves food, helps determine taste, and facilitates swallowing
      • Rinses and cleans the mouth cavity
      • Begins to break down carbohydrates
      • Maintains pH in the forestomachs
      • Performs a protective function (lysozyme)

    Saliva Regulation

    • Caused by unconditioned and conditioned irritants
    • True secretory nerves are parasympathetic, causing a rich secretion of watery saliva
    • Sympathetic nerves cause weak secretion, resulting in thick saliva and dry mouth

    Physiological Roles of Water in the Body

    • Forms the major part of body fluids
    • Acts as a solvent
    • Acts as a medium for enzymatic reactions
    • Thermoregulation
    • Component of digestive juices
    • Moisturizes air in the respiratory tract
    • Moisturizes mucous membranes
    • Acts as a lubricant for joints
    • Acts as a shock absorber protecting organs

    Fluid Compartments

    • Extracellular fluid (ECF): outside of cells, 20% of the total amount of fluid in the body
    • Intracellular fluid (ICF): inside cells, 40% of the total amount of fluid in the body
    • Transcellular fluid (TCF): lies in serous cavities, low amount of fluid in the body, variable

    Lipid Absorption and Transport

    • Lipids broken down to fatty acids and glycerol by lipases
    • Fatty acids absorbed with bile acids
    • Formed into chylomicrons in the intestinal mucosa
    • Chylomicrons absorbed into lymph and blood, and transported to liver
    • In liver, used for synthesis of sterols (cholesterol, phosphatides) or oxidation

    Nephron Loop Functions

    • The nephron loop is responsible for producing concentrated urine found in the collecting ducts.
    • The descending loop is highly permeable to water, but slightly permeable to sodium (Na) ions, leading to water reabsorption.
    • The ascending loop is permeable to Na and Cl ions, but not to water, promoting the reabsorption of Na ions.
    • The countercurrent mechanism in the nephron loop is an active process that maintains the concentration gradient in the renal medulla.
    • If the countercurrent mechanism is "turned off," urine concentration will not occur, leading to kidney failure.

    Neuro-Humoral Regulation of Kidneys

    • Osmotic pressure regulation occurs through osmoreceptors and blood vessel volume receptors.
    • Osmoreceptors respond to changes in blood osmotic pressure, increasing ADH and promoting water reabsorption in nephron tubules when osmotic pressure increases.
    • Blood vessel volume receptors respond to changes in blood volume, increasing ADH and promoting water retention when blood volume increases.
    • The nervous system regulates kidney function through the hypothalamus, which responds to changes in blood osmotic pressure and volume.

    Nervous System Classification

    • The nervous system is divided into two subdivisions: the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
    • The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS consists of nerves that connect to the CNS and internal organs.
    • The PNS is further divided into the somatic nervous system, which innervates skeletal muscles, and the autonomic nervous system, which innervates internal organs and blood vessels.
    • The autonomic nervous system is divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic systems, which have opposing effects on the body.

    Neuron Classification

    • Neurons can be classified into unipolar, bipolar, and multipolar neurons based on their shape.
    • Unipolar neurons have one process that includes both an axon and a dendrite, and are exclusively sensory neurons.
    • Bipolar neurons have two processes, an axon and a dendrite, and are mainly found in the olfactory epithelium and retina.
    • Multipolar neurons have more than two processes, an axon, and two or more dendrites, and are the majority of CNS neurons.

    Nerve Fiber Classification

    • Nerve fibers can be classified by function, structure, and type of synapse and neurotransmitter.
    • By function, nerve fibers can be classified into somatic, autonomic, secretory, sensory, motor, and interneurons.
    • By structure, nerve fibers can be classified into myelinated or unmyelinated fibers.
    • By type of synapse and neurotransmitter, nerve fibers can be classified into adrenergic, cholinergic, and peptidergic fibers.

    Parathyroid Glands

    • The parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood calcium levels.
    • PTH increases blood calcium levels by promoting calcium absorption in the gastrointestinal tract, reabsorption in the nephron tubules, and activation of osteoclast activity.
    • PTH also regulates phosphorus levels and maintains an optimal calcium-to-phosphorus ratio in the body.
    • The parathyroid glands are necessary for life, and their removal can lead to death due to severe calcium deficiency.

    Blood Circulatory System

    • The blood circulatory system is divided into the heart, arteries, capillaries, and veins.
    • The heart functions as a pump, ensuring blood flow through the circulatory system.
    • Arteries are resistance blood vessels that regulate blood flow, while capillaries are metabolic blood vessels where substances are exchanged between the blood and intercellular fluid.
    • Veins are capacitance/volume blood vessels that regulate blood flow to the heart.
    • Blood flow velocity changes throughout the circulatory system, with the highest velocity in large arteries and the lowest velocity in capillaries.
    • Blood flow volume remains constant throughout the circulatory system, ensuring equal oxygen and nutrient delivery to all tissues.

    Physiological Functions of the Skin

    • The skin is an excretory organ, regulating sweat excretion through sweat glands
    • The skin has several functions:
      • Mechanically protects the organism from the external environment
      • Distributes substances between the organism and the environment
      • Protects against UV radiation
      • Has bactericidal function
      • Participates in body thermoregulation
      • Has receptor function
    • Exocrine glands, such as sebaceous and sweat glands, have ducts and secrete to the surface

    Sweat Glands

    • There are two types of sweat glands:
      • Atrichial (formerly Eccrine) sweat glands, found in the skin, function for thermoregulation and excretion
      • Epitrichial (formerly Apocrine) sweat glands, found in the armpits and around the anus, secrete oily substance and release pheromones
    • Sweat glands have two structural parts:
      • Secretory part, consisting of spindle-shaped myoepithelial cells and two secretory cell types
      • Excretory part, consisting of cells that ensure the reabsorption of Na, K, and Cl from sweat into the blood

    Hypothalamo-Hypophyseal System

    • The hypothalamo-hypophyseal system consists of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, which are closely interconnected
    • The system has neural and humoral connections, with the hypothalamus secreting hormones that affect hormone synthesis in the pituitary
    • The hypothalamus regulates the release of hormones from the pituitary, which in turn affects various endocrine organs throughout the body
    • The hypothalamo-hypophyseal system regulates the following endocrine organs:
      • Anterior pituitary (Adenohypophysis)
      • Posterior pituitary (Neurohypophysis)
      • Thyroid gland
      • Adrenal cortex
      • Gonads (Ovaries and Testes)
      • Growth hormone

    Blood Types and Rhesus Factor

    • Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of antibodies (agglutinins) in the blood plasma and the presence or absence of inherited antigenic substances (agglutinogens) on the surface of red blood cells (RBCs)
    • There are four blood groups: A, B, AB, and 0
    • The Rhesus factor is an additional antigen on the surface of RBCs, with 85% of people having the Rhesus factor (Rh+) and 15% lacking it (Rh-)
    • Determining the Rhesus factor is important, as Rh- individuals can synthesize anti-Rhesus antibodies if exposed to Rh+ blood

    Digestion

    • There are two types of digestion: intracellular and extracellular
    • Intracellular digestion occurs in unicellular and lower multicellular organisms, where food is digested in a digestive vacuole
    • Extracellular digestion occurs in highly developed animals, where digestion takes place in the cavities of the digestive tract
    • There are two types of extracellular digestion: cavity digestion and membranal digestion
    • Cavity digestion occurs in the stomach and intestines, where digestive juices are mixed with food
    • Membranal digestion occurs in the small intestine, where enzymes are fixed on the microvilli and break down partially digested nutrients

    Food Digestion in the Gastrointestinal Tract

    • Mechanical digestion occurs through the motor function of the digestive tract, where food is crushed, dissolved, mixed with digestive juices, and moved forward
    • Chemical digestion occurs through enzymes, which break down polymers into monomers
    • Biological digestion occurs through microflora and microfauna, which break down organic matter
    • The enteric nervous system (ENS) controls the digestive process, with two main plexuses: the myenteric (Auerbach's) plexus and the submucosal (Meissner's) plexus

    Urine Formation

    • Urine is formed from blood plasma through three basic physiologic processes: filtration, reabsorption, and secretion
    • All parts of the nephron are involved in the formation of urine
    • Neuro-humoral regulation of renal functions:
      • Filtration: regulated by neural way
      • Reabsorption: regulated by humoral way
      • Secretion: self-regulated

    Filtration

    • First process performed by the nephron: filtering the blood (glomerular filtration)
    • Physical process where semipermeable biologic membrane filters out formed elements of blood and plasma proteins, allowing water, electrolytes, acids, and bases to enter the glomerular capsule
    • Filtration intensity depends on blood pressure, oncotic pressure, and pressure in the nephron capsule

    Reabsorption

    • Occurs in the proximal tubule and nephron loop
    • Both physical and physiological process: substances transported back to the blood from nephron tubules using energy (active process) and diffusion/osmosis (passive process)
    • Substances reabsorbed: water (85%), electrolytes (sodium, chloride, potassium, sulfate, phosphate ions), bicarbonate ions, and nutrients (glucose, amino acids, organic substances)

    Secretion

    • Active physiological process: epithelial cells transfer substances from blood to urine for excretion
    • Occurs along the tubule, with different substances secreted at different areas
    • Helps maintain electrolyte and acid-base homeostasis

    Countercurrent Mechanism

    • Active process in the loops of Henle responsible for producing concentrated urine
    • Water reabsorption occurs in the descending loop, increasing osmotic pressure and attracting Na ions
    • Na ions are absorbed in the ascending loop, creating a high osmotic pressure and promoting water reabsorption

    Urine Concentration

    • No osmotic gradient between the filtrate and interstitial fluid in the cortical collecting duct, so no water is reabsorbed
    • In the presence of ADH, concentrated medullary interstitial fluid creates a gradient for water reabsorption from the filtrate
    • Deeper in the medulla, interstitial fluid is more concentrated, so water reabsorption continues from the medullary collecting duct
    • Concentrated urine is produced when the filtrate reaches the end of the papillary duct

    Reabsorption Threshold

    • The concentration of a substance in the blood above which the kidneys begin to excrete it into the urine
    • Threshold substances have a maximum amount that can be completely reabsorbed back into the bloodstream from the ultrafiltrate
    • Examples: glucose
    • Threshold-free substances are never reabsorbed back into the bloodstream, regardless of their concentration in the blood
    • Examples: creatinine

    Food Assessment in the Mouth Cavity

    • Food intake, chewing, and swallowing occur in the mouth cavity, the beginning of the digestive tract.
    • Food sorting and initiation of reflexes occur in the mouth cavity due to the presence of chemical, tactile, thermo, pain, and taste receptors.
    • Reflexes initiated in the mouth cavity include motor reflexes (e.g., milk suckling, swallowing, chewing, spitting, motility of digestive tract) and secretory reflexes (e.g., salivary, gastric acid, pancreatic juices, bile secretion).

    Physiological Roles of Calcium in the Body

    • Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the animal body, present mainly in bone tissue (up to 99%) and teeth.
    • Calcium is essential for:
      • Bone and cartilage formation
      • Blood clotting
      • Activating enzymes (e.g., pancreatic lipase, cholinesterase)
      • Muscle contractions
      • Transmission of nerve impulses
      • Reducing nervous system and muscle excitability
      • Nutrient absorption into cells
      • Vitamin B12 absorption
      • Enhancing phagocytic function of leukocytes
      • Increasing resistance to toxins and poisons
    • Calcium deficiency can cause:
      • Increased muscle and nerve excitability
      • Cramps
      • Bone deformations (e.g., rickets, osteomalacia)
    • Signs of calcium deficiency include:
      • Curved legs
      • Rachitis
      • Enlarged joints
      • Osteoporosis
      • Thin eggshells
      • Milk fever
    • Calcium toxicity can interfere with mineral absorption, especially zinc.

    Digestion Processes in the Stomach

    • The stomach is a reservoir that holds food for 0.5-3 hours, allowing for chemical processing and incretory function.
    • Gastric juice has a colorless, clear appearance, with a pH range of 1.0-2.5 in monogastric animals and 2.2-2.8 in ruminants.
    • The main components of gastric juice are:
      • Enzymes (e.g., gastric proteases, pepsins)
      • Hydrochloric acid (HCl)
    • Gastric juice properties and action:
      • Breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids
      • Has a weak absorption function for drugs and alcohol

    Regulation of Action of the Heart

    • Heart rate and contractile force of the heart muscle are regulated by humoral mechanisms
    • Humoral regulation involves biologically active substances, including:
      • Epinephrine (increases heart rate and contractile force)
      • Acetylcholine (decreases heart rate and contractile force)
      • Electrolytes (Ca²⁺ increases and K⁺ decreases contractile force)
      • Thyroxin (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) (increase heart rate and contractile force)
    • Autoregulatory mechanism involves intrinsic mechanisms within the heart, including:
      • Frank-Starling mechanism (regulates heart muscle contraction and relaxation)
      • Homeometric regulation (regulates contractile strength of cardiac muscle)
    • Neural mechanism of regulation involves extrinsic mechanisms, including:
      • Parasympathetic nervous system (decreases heart rate and contractile force)
      • Sympathetic nervous system (increases heart rate and contractile force)

    Regulation of Ca and P Levels in the Body

    • Parathyroid glands produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood Ca levels
    • PTH increases Ca levels in the blood by:
      • Promoting Ca absorption in the gut
      • Stimulating Ca release from bones
    • Calcitonin (thyrocalcitonin) acts in the opposite way, lowering Ca levels in the blood
    • Importance of Ca in the body:
      • Excitability of nerve cells
      • Muscle contraction and relaxation
      • Blood clotting

    Motility of Forestomach and Rumination

    • Forestomach motility is regulated by the nerve center in the medulla oblongata
    • Parasympathetic nerves stimulate motility, while sympathetic nerves reduce it
    • Forestomach contractions occur in two separate systems:
      • Rumen anteroom and reticulum contractions
      • Dorsal sac and ventral sac contractions
    • Rumination (cud-chewing) involves regurgitation of incompletely chewed feed masses to re-chew and facilitate microbial fermentation
    • Forestomach motility is promoted by receptor irritation in the forestomarchs and digestive tract

    Metabolism and Excretion

    • Metabolism is the sum of physical and chemical processes in an organism
    • Excretion is the process of removing metabolic waste products from the body
    • Excretion organs include:
      • Lungs (remove CO₂ and volatile substances)
      • Sweat glands (remove water, salts, and end products of protein metabolism)
      • Gastrointestinal tract (remove undigested parts of food, end products of digestive juices, and minerals)
    • Liver transforms ammonia into urea, which is filtered from the blood by the kidneys and excreted in urine

    Respiration

    • Respiration is the process of exchanging gases between the body cells and the environment
    • There are three types of respiration: internal, external, and cellular
    • External respiration involves inhalation and exhalation of gases
    • Internal respiration involves gas exchange between the blood and body cells
    • Cellular respiration involves the conversion of food to energy
    • Anatomic dead space refers to the airways that do not participate in gas exchange
    • Functional dead space refers to alveoli that do not act in gas exchange due to collapse, obstruction, or other factors

    Digestion Particularities in Horses, Pigs, and Birds

    • Horses have a unique stomach anatomy, with a blind sac for bacterial fermentation and amylolysis
    • Pigs have a large zone of cardiac glands in the stomach, where carbohydrate degradation and amylolytic processes occur
    • Birds have a crop for maceration of food and digestion of carbohydrates, and a glandular stomach (proventriculus) and a muscular stomach (gizzard) for protein digestion

    Thermoregulation

    • Heat production occurs through muscle activity, liver function, and other organs

    • Heat loss occurs through evaporation, convection, radiation, and conduction

    • Temperature-sensitive receptors are localized in the CNS, skin, and internal organs

    • The skin, liver, and muscles play important roles in thermoregulation### Oncotic Pressure and Blood Plasma Proteins

    • Oncotic pressure, also known as colloid osmotic pressure, is a form of osmotic pressure exerted by proteins that pulls water into the circulatory system.

    • Osmotic pressure is the minimum pressure needed to prevent the inward flow of water across a semipermeable membrane.

    Functions of Blood Plasma Proteins

    • Create oncotic pressure in the blood plasma, ensuring normal exchange of water and salts in the capillaries (e.g., mechanism of edema).
    • Play a protective role, especially for globulins.
    • Help maintain a relatively constant blood pH.
    • Transport various substances in the blood (e.g., Fe, lipids, hormones, vitamins).
    • Act as the only protein reserve in the body.

    Blood Plasma Osmotic Pressure

    • Is determined by the osmolar concentration of dissolved salts and ions in the blood plasma.
    • Provides a pH level and irritability.
    • Remains relatively constant and equal in intracellular and extracellular environments.
    • Determines the flow of solvent through semipermeable membranes, keeping water in the extracellular fluid.
    • Is maintained by the excretory organs (kidneys, sweat glands) and monitored by osmoreceptors.

    Capillaries and Blood Plasma Proteins

    • Capillaries are blood vessels where metabolic processes take place.
    • Blood plasma proteins in capillaries are involved in filtration and reabsorption (attracting H2O), pH level regulation, and transport of substances.
    • Blood colloid osmotic pressure is determined by blood plasma proteins (1/220) together with inorganic electrolytes, and its main function is to control blood plasma filtration and reabsorption processes in capillaries.

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