Urbanisation: Mumbai Case Study

Urbanisation

• Urbanisation measures the growth in the proportion of a country's population residing in urban areas.

Rural Push Factors in Mumbai

• Lack of investment contributes to people leaving.
• Insufficient services drive people away from rural areas.
• Limited opportunities encourage migration to urban centers.
• Low wages push people to seek better economic prospects elsewhere.
• Drought and flooding displace rural populations.
• Rural poverty motivates people to move to urban areas.

Urban Pull Factors of Mumbai

• A perception of a better quality of life attracts people to the city.
• Growth and outsourcing industries provide job opportunities.
• Enhanced education and healthcare services are a draw.
• The promise of better housing attracts migrants.
• The potential for better-paid jobs is a significant pull.
• Increased opportunities are a key factor attracting rural residents.

Impacts on the Dharavi Slum

• Sixty percent of residents still live in poverty.
• One million people inhabit just one square mile.
• The slum provides cheap accommodation for low-skilled workers.

Life in Dharavi

• Homes have a solid appearance, and many have electricity.
• Average incomes are low; leather workers earn about £40 per month.
• Many families cannot afford to move out due to high costs elsewhere in Mumbai.

Suburbanisation

• Suburbanisation involves the outward growth of urban development as people relocate to the suburbs.

Reasons for Suburbanisation in Los Angeles

• Electric tramways in the 1920s enabled people to live further from work.
• Motorways spread across the city; cheap petrol was available until the 1980s.
• Significant growth extended to the San Bernardino mountains and deserts, two hours from LA.

Challenges of Suburbanisation in LA

• Suburban sprawl has increased congestion and urban smog.
• There is a lack of housing options.
• Ten million car users cause significant air pollution.
• Only 4% of people use public transport.

Counter Urbanisation

• Counter-urbanisation occurs when large numbers of people move from urban areas into surrounding countryside or rural areas.

Evidence of Counter Urbanisation in St Ives

• There is increased use of the commuter railway station in Cambridge.
• House values have risen (e.g., £130,000 to £291,000).
• Traffic congestion has increased.
• More shops and services are available in the town.

Impact on Rural Settlement

• Out-migration of young people unable to afford new house prices occurs.
• The elderly population in villages declines.
• There is in-migration of young to middle-aged married couples and families with young children.
• House prices rise.

Urban Resurgence

• Urban resurgence is the movement of people back to an area that was previously in decline.

The High Line

• The High Line receives 5 million visitors annually.
• In the 2000s, the railroad regeneration commenced transforming it into an elevated park and walkway.
• It has become a site for artistic commissions and cultural events.
• Spending has increased in local shops and cafes.
• The High Line has encouraged real estate development in the neighborhoods along its route.

Economic Processes of Urban Growth

• Growth is focused around ports and urban cores.
• People move inward for jobs and better wages.
• Increased demand for infrastructure, housing, and sanitation creates jobs.
• A wider employment pool leads to increased jobs and wage increases.

Social Processes of Urban Growth

• There is increased access to healthcare.
• Urban areas offer better lifestyles.
• Social diversity increases.
• Deprivation and exclusivity exist, such as gated communities in LA.

Technological Processes of Urban Growth

• HDEs (High-Density Environments) are hotspots for technological advances (e.g., Apple in California).
• EMEs (Emerging Market Economies) lead to factory growth (e.g., Mumbai and Shanghai).

Political Processes of Urban Growth

• Inequalities are amplified with the emergence of a new category of 'working' people.
• Political reform focuses on issues surrounding the effect on urban life.

Demographic Processes of Urban Growth

• Cultural and ethnic diversity increases (e.g., Chinatown).
• Age structure changes due to a younger population.
• Urban areas are seen as youthful because families are being raised.

Urban Pull Factors: Positive Multiplier Effect

• Higher wages are a draw.
• The pace and excitement of urban life attract people.
• Improved education and healthcare are appealing.
• Better job opportunities are a key factor.
• Government support is available.
• Public utilities like water, gas, and electricity are more accessible.

Megacities

• A megacity is a city with more than 10 million people.

World City

• A world city is a major urban center that plays a key role in global economic, political, cultural, and social networks, often influencing international affairs and trade.

Shanghai as a World City

• It attracts a diverse population of international workers and expatriates due to economic opportunities via migration.
• Shanghai is influential in shaping China's policies and hosting key international diplomatic events.
• It is a leading global manufacturing center, particularly in technology, electronics, and automotive sectors.
• As a major financial hub, Shanghai has a strong presence of international corporations and investment opportunities.

Bengaluru's Growth

• It is a global leader in IT services and software development known as the "Silicon Valley of India."
• Rapid economic expansion is due to a thriving tech industry attracting both national and international investments.
• Bengaluru is home to a large number of startups and innovation centers, fostering entrepreneurship.
• The city sees a significant influx of skilled professionals from across India and abroad seeking opportunities in tech and business sectors via migration.
• Infrastructure development includes improved transportation, such as a growing metro system, and an increasing number of commercial and residential projects.

Economic Development in Megacities

• Megacities dominate the national and regional economies of countries.
• Many companies have their headquarters in megacities.
• They encourage population growth, which leads to the desirability of goods and services.
• All megacities act as service centers within the formal economic sector.

Population Growth in Megacities

• Young people are drawn to live in megacities due to their vibrancy, fast pace, and opportunities.
• 'Internal growth' occurs as people who have moved into cities have children.
• Overpopulation can lead to the creation of slums.

Economies of Scale

• Providing goods and services in one place is cheaper than spreading them across several cities.
• This leads to financial savings for local government.
• Communication and transport are centralized, saving time and money.
• There is a high degree of choice due to the availability of skilled and unskilled workers.

Multiplier Effect

• As a city prospers, it attracts people and businesses.
• This encourages inward investment.
• Increased development and growth result.
• This generates further demand for skills, labor, and job growth.

Deindustrialisation

• Deindustrialisation is the long-term decline of a country's manufacturing and heavy industries.

Decentralisation

• Decentralisation is the movement of population, shops, offices, and industries away from urban centers into retail and business parks.

Reasons for Company Decentralisation

• Companies have expanded to out-of-town shopping centers.
• Free parking is included.
• These areas offer restaurants and shops.
• Rent is cheaper out-of-town (e.g., Amazon paid £14 million in business rate tax for their out-of-town warehouses over the past years).

Rise of the Service Economy

• In 1841, 30% of working people in the UK worked in service industries.
• By 2011, this figure had risen to 4/5 in England and Wales.
• There is growth in the research and development economy.
• Property development is increasing.

Cambridge Science Park

• It's located close to the university.
• This location is an attractive place with a good workforce.
• The park is close to transport (e.g., airports, 45-minute fast train to Kings Cross).
• Founded in 1970, it is the oldest science park in the UK.
• High-tech jobs employ 1/4 of Cambridge's workforce.
• The city is becoming overcrowded.

Urban Regeneration

• Urban regeneration is investment in the revival of old urban areas by improving what is there or clearing it away and rebuilding.

Regeneration of the London Docklands

• 50,000 new homes have been built since 1981.
• 8,000 local authority homes are being improved.
• The Silvertown urban village contains 9,000 new homes.
• £20 million has been spent on environment and community projects such as local parks.
• The DLR opened in 1987.
• London City Airport opened in 1987 and handles 4.3 million passengers a year.
• By 1988, 600 hectares of land were reclaimed.
• Parks and riverside paths were developed; old houses were improved.

Urban Form

• Urban form refers to the physical characteristics of built-up areas, including the shape, size, density, and configuration of settlements.

Land Use

• Land use is the function of a place and the main activities of urban areas.

Examples of Land Use

• Industrial
• Financial
• Research and development
• Homes
• Leisure

Typical Land Use Within Cities

• Housing
• Industry
• Services
• Transport

Economic Inequality

• Economic inequality is the unequal distribution of money among a population.

Higher Economic Inequalities in LDEs

• This is due to a lack of funding to support the poorest.

Lower Economic Inequalities in MDE's

• There is government welfare for struggling citizens.

Social Inequality

• Social inequality is when different social groups are spread across an urban landscape and categorized into groups.

Active Segregation

• People congregate with those of similar status.

Cultural Diversity

• Cultural diversity is a wide mix of people from different ethnic and cultural backgrounds.

Cultural Segregation

• Ethnic groups tend to segregate themselves, which can bring mistrust and anger.

Batley Case Study

• After WW2, rapid industrialisation saw migration from Pakistan, India, and the Caribbean.
• People of South Asian origin make up 1/3 of Batley's population.
• One in three schools is a faith school.
• Jo Cox, the MP of the Labour Party, was murdered on June 16, 2016, because of her ethnicity.

Mixed-Use Development

• The aim is to attract people back into city centers by providing opportunities to live, work, and relax in one place.

Princesshay as a Mixed-Use Development

• Over 100 apartments are located above retail spaces, providing city-center housing.
• It houses more than 60 stores, featuring major brands like Next and John Lewis.
• Planned expansions include restaurants, a cinema, and sports facilities.
• The area combines residential, retail, and leisure spaces, revitalizing Exeter's city center.

Cultural and Heritage Quarters

• These are planned areas focused on the history or character of a city.

Fortress Development

• Fortress developments are gated communities designed around security, protection, surveillance, and exclusion, which promotes social segregation.

Edge Cities

• Edge cities are self-contained areas of offices, retail, and leisure centers close to major transport links on the outskirts of city centers.

Gentrified Areas

• These are unplanned inner-city regeneration areas where wealthier people move into run-down, cheaper inner-city streets and improve them one at a time.

Governmental Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• There are partnerships between public and private sectors.
• Services are provided by the private sector rather than the public sector.
• Unfettered movement of international finance is present.

Economic Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• The economy is dominated by service and high-tech sectors.
• It is a globalised economy.
• There is an economy of consumption.

Planning Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• The voices of many stakeholders are considered.
• Space is fragmented by a focus on form over function.

Structural Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• Includes edge cities.
• High-tech corridors are located here.
• There are messy, multi-purpose structures.

Architectural Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• Different styles are juxtaposed.
• Historic and cultural recognition exists.
• Symbolism and meaning are incorporated.

Cultural Characteristics of Post-Modern Cities

• Social polarisation is present.
• The population is highly fragmented.

Precipitation in Urban Areas

• Precipitation is more frequent in urban areas (15%).
• Air has to rise, cool, and condense.
• Urban pollution in the atmosphere increases aerosol particles that become cloud-condensing nuclei.
• This increases the 'seeding' of cloud droplets, increasing precipitation rates.

Thunderstorm Formation

• Urban convection is strong in summer afternoons.
• This creates an updraft of hot air that rises, cools, and condenses rapidly.
• Warm, humid air is carried upwards repeatedly.
• Cumulonimbus clouds form.
• Water droplets increase in size.
• When large enough to overcome gravity, they fall.
• Raindrops split in updrafts; there is an electrical discharge into the air, which is lightning.
• Thunder is a result of the sudden increase in pressure and temperature from lightning, causing a rapid expansion of air around it.

Urban Heat Island Effect

• The air in urban areas can be 2-5 degrees warmer than in nearby rural areas.
• The highest temperatures are found in densely built-up areas and industrial areas, where activities generate the most heat.
• Dark-colored buildings and concrete absorb heat during the day and release it slowly during the night.
• Heat is also obtained from car fumes.

Tall Buildings and Air Flow

• Tall buildings act as barriers and reduce wind speed.
• Buildings also act as wind channels where the wind moves faster, causing pedestrians to be blown over and causing much litter.

Smog

• Sunlight reacts with chemical pollutants in the atmosphere.
• UV lights cause pollutants to break into secondary, harmful chemicals, forming photochemical fog.

Clean Air Act of 1956

• Established smoke-free zones.
• Fines are issues for leaving engines running.
• MOT emissions testing was introduced.
• Homes are banned from using fires.
• Illegal fuels are banned.

ULEZ (Ultra Low Emission Zone)

• It costs £12.50 to drive into London, inside the M25.
• It encourages the use of public transport (e.g., EV buses, tube).
• The aim is to create a low or zero-emission city in London.
• EV charging points are being installed.
• There are zero-emission buses and taxis.
• Cars newer than 2015 are ULEZ free.

Impacts on Drainage Basin Storage

• Inputs are increased due to increased precipitation from pollution and temperature, and extra water is artificially imported into the system.
• Outputs are unbalanced because less vegetation decreases evapotranspiration, and impermeable surfaces increase runoff.
• Transfers are increased as runoff is contaminated by dust and pollutants from industry and transport, and artificial drainage systems are added above and below ground.
• Stores are decreased overall due to impermeable surfaces reducing ground infiltration, rivers are diverted, reservoirs and ponds are vulnerable to evapotranspiration, puddles are temporary, and lakes and ponds are drained.

Lamb Drove Case Study

• Permeable pavements are used (water can enter storage zones).
• Swales collect excess water and treat it.
• Retention basins slow down the runoff rate.
• This is cost-effective.
• Improvement in biodiversity and life occurs.
• Water quality is improved.
• Concerns exist that standing water may be a hazard.

Cheonggyecheon River Restoration

• Located in Seoul, South Korea.
• In 2003, a $281 million scheme was implemented to restore the river over an 8.5 km stretch.
• The project aimed to revive the area, reduce pollution, and address the threat posed by the elevated overpass.
• The overpass was dismantled.
• 22 new bridges were built to ease transportation.
• Historical buildings were preserved.
• Benches and fountains were installed.

Sources of Industrial Waste

• Light and heavy manufacturing, power and chemical plants, and fabrication.

Examples of Waste in Industry

• Packaging
• Food
• Hazardous waste
• Ashes
• Specialist waste
• Housekeeping waste

Sources of Commercial Waste

• Offices
• Restaurants
• Markets
• Shops
• Hotels

Examples of Commercial Waste

• Paper
• Cardboard
• Plastics
• Food
• Glass
• Metal

Advantages of Incineration as Energy Recovery

• Reduces the use of fossil fuels.
• Waste ash can be extracted to produce metals and glass.
• The amount of landfill waste is reduced.

Disadvantages of Incineration as Energy Recovery

• Toxic chemicals and ash can be released into the atmosphere.

Advantages of Landfill

• Landfills are lined to prevent leachate from running out of the site.
• Leachate is collected in pipes and transferred to special leachate ponds.
• Methane can be used to generate electricity.

Disadvantages of Landfill

• Methane is produced as decomposition begins.
• Landfills are smelly and attract vermin.

Advantages of Recycling

• Reduces demand on raw materials.
• Reduces greenhouse emissions.
• Requires less energy.

Disadvantages of Recycling

• Requires new infrastructure and collection points.

Disadvantages of Unregulated Waste Disposal

• Ecosystems are damaged.
• Rivers and groundwater are polluted.
• Wildlife can be trapped in waste.
• Unwanted vermin can transmit diseases.

Disadvantages of Submergence Waste

• Submergence waste is toxic and radioactive, which leaks into the ocean, damaging ecosystems.

Manila, Philippines

• 10% of waste is recycled.
• The largest landfill site is Payatas, which is 200 hectares.
• 8,000 slum dwellers live around the landfill.
• 4/5 of the waste is in landfill.
• Leachates are present in the water.
• The area has a foul smell.
• Waste pickers suffer from severe cholera.

AEB Amsterdam: Waste to Energy

• The world's largest waste-to-energy company.
• It produces 1 million MWh of electricity annually.
• AEB Amsterdam converts 99% of the 1.4 million tons of municipal and industrial waste delivered annually into sustainable energy and raw materials.

Ecological Footprint

• Ecological footprint is the area of land needed to provide the necessary resources and absorb the waste generated by a community.

Physical and Natural Dimensions of Sustainability

• Land use and conservation.
• Waste management and resource management.
• Energy efficiency and emission reduction.
• Expansion of green spaces.

Economic Dimensions of Sustainability

• Access to ethical and well-paid jobs.
• Technology and innovation are supported for green production and growth.
• Ecological footprint of a business is addressed.

Social Dimensions of Sustainability

• Social inclusivity.
• Access to public spaces, services, and good housing.
• Tolerance and respect for each other to maintain social cohesiveness.

Features of Sustainable Cities

• Liveable community with improved transport.
• Green architecture.
• Urban farming.
• Waste management and water conservation.
• Green space expansion.
• Renewable energy.

Opportunities for Sustainability

• Inward investment.
• Higher population densities.
• Sustainable living.
• Protection of green belts and redevelopment of brownfield sites.
• Low carbon policies.

Challenges to Sustainability

• LDEs lack the money to invest.
• Lifestyle changes are hard to implement.
• Fast urbanization rates create difficulties in maintaining demand for a growing population.
• Globalisation has increased the power and influence of TNCs.

Strategies for Developing Sustainable Cities

• Reducing vehicle numbers.
• Increasing green space.
• Improving urban waste disposal.
• Increasing renewable energy use.
• Reducing water use and wastage.
• Improving building efficiency.
• Sponge cities.

Freiburg Case Study

• Located in South Germany near the Black Forest.
• Has the youngest population in Germany.
• A 9-month protest in 1975 showed local passion for protecting the environment.
• Financial investors are given season tickets as a thank you for investing in the city (social sustainability).
• 10,000 residents are employed in the green industry (economic sustainability).
• There are twice as many bikes as cars (environmental sustainability).
• Parking costs are expensive.
• Streets aren't built wide enough for cars.
• The local football stadium is powered by solar panels.
• Any building development must be balanced with an environmental project.

Urban Challenges in Rio

• 40% of residents live in Rio's suburban areas.
• 4 million cars are jammed on the road each day.
• Raw sewage, chemicals, and landfill leaching end up in Guanabara Bay.
• 50% of homes in Rio's favelas have no sewerage.
• Unemployment rates in favelas are over 20%.

Solutions to Urban Challenges in Rio

• Art centers for young people in Maré and a private university in Rochina have been opened.
• 7 treatment plants were built in 2014, but only 1 is properly used.
• Pacification in 2008 restored some territories run by gangs, such as Santa Maria.
• The metro system has been expanded, including the Niteroi Bridge.

Olympic Games Regeneration Cost

• The Olympic Games regeneration cost $13.1 billion.

Benefits from Olympic Games in Rio

• New transport links made commuting more accessible, increasing productivity.
• Porto Maravilha has now become a popular tourist destination.
• Air and Water quality improved due to the cleanup of Curaba Bay.

Urban Challenges in Stratford

• Many residents were not consulted, who lived in and around the Olympic site (e.g., the Carpenter Estate).
• Locals felt they were a 'social problem'.
• Most of the 250 people moved from the estate have been resettled nearby.

Benefits of the Stratford Regeneration

• 4,000 trees were planted.
• 30,000 tonnes of rubbish were cleaned up.
• Job creation occurred within the Olympic Park.
• Stratford International Station linked to London City Airport, improving accessibility.
• Housing developments expanded residential and commercial options.
• Brownfield sites were developed.
• Westfield Stratford was created (the biggest shopping center in Europe).