Psychology Chapter 3: Biopsychology

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following goals of psychology involves understanding the reasons behind human behavior?

  • Description
  • Explanation (correct)
  • Prediction
  • Control

Which early school of thought in psychology focused on breaking down mental processes into their most basic components?

  • Psychodynamic theory
  • Functionalism
  • Structuralism (correct)
  • Gestalt psychology

What is the primary criticism of introspection as a scientific method?

  • It is only applicable to animal studies
  • It focuses too much on observable behavior
  • It requires specialized equipment
  • It is too subjective and lacks objectivity (correct)

Which perspective in psychology considers the interaction of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors in understanding behavior?

<p>Biopsychosocial perspective (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which research method is best suited for determining cause-and-effect relationships?

<p>Experiment (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In an experiment, what type of variable is deliberately manipulated by the researcher?

<p>Independent variable (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is a control condition important in an experiment?

<p>To serve as a baseline for comparison (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of myelin?

<p>To speed up the transmission of neural impulses (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of neurotransmitters?

<p>To transmit signals across the synapse (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neurotransmitter is primarily associated with mood regulation and is often a target of antidepressant medications?

<p>Serotonin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which division of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) is responsible for the 'fight or flight' response?

<p>Sympathetic (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is primarily responsible for processing visual information?

<p>Occipital lobe (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is transduction?

<p>The conversion of sensory stimuli into electrical signals (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between a conditioned stimulus (CS) and an unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning?

<p>The US naturally elicits a response, while the CS requires learning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What learning process involves the removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to increase the likelihood of that behavior in the future?

<p>Negative reinforcement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Atkinson & Shiffrin model, which memory store has the shortest duration?

<p>Sensory memory (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is memory consolidation?

<p>The process of strengthening and stabilizing memories (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Ainsworth's Strange Situation assess?

<p>Attachment style (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Freud, which component of personality operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification?

<p>Id (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which defense mechanism involves attributing one's own unacceptable thoughts or feelings to another person?

<p>Projection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do agonists influence neurotransmitter activity in the synapse?

<p>They mimic neurotransmitters, thereby amplifying their effects. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What differentiates an action potential from the resting potential of a neuron?

<p>Action potential involves a rapid change in membrane potential, while resting potential is a stable state. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does myelin sheath contribute to neuronal communication?

<p>It insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of electrical signals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the semipermeable membrane of a neuron play in maintaining the resting potential?

<p>It selectively allows certain ions to pass, creating a charge difference crucial for the resting potential. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the functional consequence of damage to the corpus callosum?

<p>The two hemispheres of the brain cannot readily exchange information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following tasks would be most impaired by damage to the cerebellum?

<p>Maintaining balance while walking. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the hypothalamus contribute to the maintenance of homeostasis?

<p>By regulating hormone release and various autonomic functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key function is associated with the occipital lobe?

<p>Visual processing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the theory of evolution by natural selection explain the development of specific traits in a population?

<p>Organisms with traits better suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the functions of Broca's area and Wernicke's area differ in language processing?

<p>Broca's area is involved in speech production, while Wernicke's area is involved in speech comprehension. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between fraternal and identical twins in terms of their genetic similarity?

<p>Identical twins share 100% of their genes; fraternal twins share approximately 50%. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of the somatic nervous system?

<p>Relaying sensory and motor information to and from the central nervous system. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the endocrine system communicate with the body?

<p>Through the release of hormones into the bloodstream. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of reuptake in synaptic transmission?

<p>To clear neurotransmitters from the synaptic cleft, terminating their effect. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 'all-or-none' principle in the context of neuronal firing?

<p>A neuron always fires at its maximum intensity or not at all. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the process of neuroplasticity contribute to recovery after brain injury?

<p>By shifting functions from damaged areas to undamaged areas. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the thalamus?

<p>Acting as a sensory relay station for the brain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mutations contribute to genetic variation within a population?

<p>By creating new alleles, which can lead to different traits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between genotype and phenotype?

<p>Genotype is the genetic makeup, while phenotype is the observable characteristics. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a CT scan provide information about the brain?

<p>By using X-rays to create cross-sectional images of the brain. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the process of genetic environmental correlation?

<p>A person's genes influence the environment they are exposed to, and their environment influences gene expression. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the function of the adrenal glands?

<p>To secrete hormones involved in the stress response. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the nodes of Ranvier in neuronal transmission?

<p>To allow for rapid ion exchange during action potential propagation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does fMRI provide insights into brain function?

<p>By detecting changes in blood flow associated with neural activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key function of glial cells?

<p>Providing physical and metabolic support to neurons. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a mutation in a non-coding region of DNA potentially affect gene expression?

<p>By influencing the binding of regulatory proteins, thus modifying gene transcription. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a person inherits a genetic predisposition for high blood pressure, but maintains a healthy diet and exercise regimen, which of the following best describes the relationship between genotype and phenotype?

<p>The genotype represents the potential for high blood pressure, but the phenotype is modulated by environmental factors. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies the concept of epigenetics?

<p>Identical twins raised in different environments exhibit differences in their susceptibility to certain diseases. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would an abnormality in chromosome number, such as trisomy 21 (Down syndrome), most likely arise?

<p>As a result of errors during meiosis, leading to an unequal distribution of chromosomes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If dendrites are damaged, which of the following neuronal functions would be MOST directly affected?

<p>The neuron's ability to receive incoming signals from other neurons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would a drug that blocks the reuptake of a neurotransmitter like serotonin affect synaptic transmission?

<p>It would increase the amount of neurotransmitter in the synapse, prolonging its effects. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the degradation of myelin sheath in multiple sclerosis lead to neurological dysfunction?

<p>It slows down and disrupts the transmission of neural impulses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the most immediate consequence if the sodium-potassium pumps in a neuron stopped functioning?

<p>The neuron would be unable to maintain its resting membrane potential. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If someone struggles to voluntarily move their arms and legs, which part of the nervous system is MOST likely affected?

<p>Somatic nervous system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How would the parasympathetic nervous system respond to feelings of extreme stress and anxiety?

<p>Return the body to a state of calm after the stress has passed. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If someone is startled by a loud noise, which physiological responses would be directly triggered by the sympathetic nervous system?

<p>Increased heart rate, dilated pupils, and release of glucose. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the likely effect of damage to the thalamus?

<p>Disrupted sensory processing (except for smell). (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A person suffers brain damage and can speak fluently but the words make no sense. Which area is MOST likely damaged?

<p>Wernicke’s area (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neuroimaging technique would be MOST suitable for visualizing the structure of the brain to detect a tumor?

<p>MRI (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the substantia nigra significant for neurological function?

<p>It produces dopamine, which is crucial for motor control and reward. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of insulin?

<p>To decrease blood glucose levels by facilitating glucose uptake into cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the pituitary gland influence the function of other endocrine glands?

<p>By secreting releasing hormones that stimulate or inhibit the release of hormones from other endocrine glands. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a stressful situation, what is the role of epinephrine (adrenaline) released by the adrenal glands?

<p>To prepare the body for 'fight or flight' by increasing heart rate, blood pressure, and energy supply. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of the adrenal gland secreting hormones that regulate the body’s fluid levels?

<p>Regulating blood pressure and kidney function through electrolyte balance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the thyroid gland primarily affect the body's metabolism?

<p>By producing hormones that influence the rate at which the body uses energy. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do dominant traits differ from recessive traits in their expression?

<p>Dominant traits are expressed when homozygous or heterozygous, while recessive traits are only expressed when homozygous. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of recombination during meiosis, and why is it important?

<p>Recombination is the exchange of genetic material between chromosomes; it increases genetic diversity in offspring. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do genetic mutations contribute to genetic variability, and what role does natural selection play in this process?

<p>Mutations lead to sudden changes in a gene, and natural selection favors beneficial mutations that enhance survival and reproduction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do 'Range of reaction' and 'Genetic-environmental interaction' differ in explaining gene-environment interplay?

<p>'Range of reaction' says genes define potential, environment determines expression, while 'Genetic-environmental interaction' highlights reciprocal gene and environment influence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a scientist discovers a new type of glial cell, what functions might they investigate to understand its role in the nervous system?

<p>Study its support to neurons via physical structure, nutrient transportation, and waste removal. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the semi-permeable nature of a neuron's membrane contribute to its function?

<p>It allows specific molecule passage regulating electrical signals. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What would be the most likely effect on neuronal communication if the sodium-potassium pumps were disabled?

<p>The neuron would lose its ability to maintain resting potential and fire action potentials. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the refractory period, why is it more difficult for a neuron to fire an action potential?

<p>The neuron is hyperpolarized, requiring a stronger stimulus to reach the threshold. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does myelin facilitate faster nerve impulse conduction?

<p>By insulating the axon and allowing the signal to 'jump' between nodes of Ranvier. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between white and gray matter in the brain, and what does this difference indicate?

<p>White matter consists of myelinated axons (nerve fibres), while gray matter consists of cell bodies and dendrites. The difference indicates their functional roles in signal transmission and information processing, respectively. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do vesicles play in synaptic transmission, and how does this process contribute to neuronal communication?

<p>Vesicles store neurotransmitters. When action potential reaches axon terminal, vesicles fuse with neuron's membrane to release molecules into synaptic cleft. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do neurotransmitters transmit signals across the synaptic cleft?

<p>They bind to receptors on the receiving neuron, triggering a response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the 'lock and key' analogy apply to neurotransmitters and receptors?

<p>Each neurotransmitter (the key) shape has receptors (the lock). Only the specific molecule can bind and trigger response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the different ways neurotransmitter action can be altered, and how do these alterations impact behavior?

<p>Neurotransmitter action is influenced by production/release, availability at cleft, and receptor binding. Changes cause neurological and behavioral shifts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do drugs that act as agonists influence neurotransmitter activity in the synapse?

<p>Agonists enhance neural signaling through a number of actions that promote neurotransmitter interaction with receptor. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can antagonists affect neurotransmitter function, and what are the implications of these effects?

<p>Antagonists diminish the action of a neurotransmitter through various mechanisms, impacting neural circuitry. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If someone experiences damage to their somatic nervous system, what functions would be MOST directly affected?

<p>Control of voluntary movements and sensory perception. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems work together to maintain homeostasis?

<p>The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for stress, while the parasympathetic nervous system returns the body to a resting state. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the spinal cord as a 'communication highway,' and how do spinal reflexes operate within this system?

<p>Spinal cord handles signals to and from the brain, spinal reflexes = rapid reaction to stimuli independent of the brain. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a corpus callosotomy affect communication between the cerebral hemispheres, and what are its potential consequences?

<p>It impairs communication. This can prevent inter-hemispheric messaging- which prevents integration of processing. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the understanding of genetics enhance the field of psychology?

<p>It enables psychologists to identify and understand the biological underpinnings of certain behaviors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the relationship between genotype and phenotype?

<p>Genotype refers to the genes an individual inherits, while phenotype is the expression of those genes influenced by the environment. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do genes influence behavior, according to the information presented?

<p>Genes affect behavior through the synthesis of proteins, which then influence bodily and neural functions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of recombination during meiosis?

<p>It increases genetic variation by creating new combinations of genes in each sperm and egg cell. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What implications do dominant and recessive traits have on the expression of phenotypes?

<p>Dominant traits are always expressed regardless of the other allele, while recessive traits are only expressed if both alleles are recessive. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do mutations contribute to genetic variability, and what role does natural selection play in this process?

<p>Mutations create new genetic variations; natural selection favors beneficial variations, allowing organisms to better adapt and pass on those genes. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'range of reaction' explain the interplay between genes and environment?

<p>It indicates that genes define a potential range for a trait, and the environment determines where within that range the individual will fall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the material, what is the role of glial cells in the nervous system?

<p>To provide support, insulation, and nutrients to neurons, as well as to remove waste and assist with immune functions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do neurons communicate electrical signals?

<p>Neurons send electrical signals along the axon and release neurotransmitters into the synapse. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the provided text, how does myelin facilitate faster nerve impulse conduction?

<p>By insulating the axon and allowing the electrical signal to 'jump' between nodes of Ranvier. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the refractory period, and why is it significant?

<p>The neuron is temporarily unable to fire another action potential because it is hyperpolarized, ensuring one-way signal transmission. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the 'lock and key' analogy, how do neurotransmitters and receptors interact?

<p>Each neurotransmitter has a specific shape that only fits a matching receptor, ensuring targeted communication. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might the hypothalamus regulate vital bodily functions?

<p>By regulating the release of hormones from the pituitary gland and influencing behaviors such as hunger and thirst. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the amygdala contribute to emotional responses?

<p>It plays a key role in processing fear, triggering defensive responses, and forming memories associated with fear. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do genes contribute to behavior?

<p>Genes provide instructions for protein synthesis, influencing the development and function of the nervous system, which then affects behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the relationship between genotype and phenotype?

<p>Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual, while phenotype is the observable expression of that genetic makeup, influenced by environmental factors. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary significance of recombination during meiosis?

<p>It creates new combinations of genes, increasing genetic diversity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between monozygotic and dizygotic twins?

<p>Monozygotic twins share nearly identical genes, while dizygotic twins share approximately 50% of their genes, similar to non-twin siblings. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

If a trait is described as homozygous, what does this imply about the individual's genetic makeup for that trait?

<p>The individual has two identical alleles for that trait. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can Punnett squares be utilized in genetics?

<p>To predict the probability of offspring inheriting specific genotypes and phenotypes based on the parents' genetic makeup. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the MOST accurate description of a genetic mutation?

<p>A mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that can be beneficial, neutral, or detrimental. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the concept of 'range of reaction' explain the influence of environment on gene expression?

<p>It outlines the idea that our genes set the boundaries within which we can operate, and our environment interacts with the genes to determine where within that range we will fall. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are epigenetic changes, and how do they affect gene expression?

<p>Epigenetic changes are modifications to DNA that do not alter the nucleotide sequence but can change gene expression. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental difference between neurons and glial cells?

<p>Neurons transmit electrical signals, while glial cells do not. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of dendrites in a neuron?

<p>To receive incoming signals from other neurons. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by the term 'polarized' in the context of a neuron's membrane potential?

<p>The neuron has a resting membrane potential with a negative charge inside relative to the outside. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the 'all-or-none principle' regarding action potentials?

<p>A neuron either fires an action potential with maximum intensity or not at all; there is no in-between. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which pair of elements play a fundamental role in the generation of action potentials?

<p>Sodium and potassium (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does myelin contribute to neuronal communication?

<p>It allows for faster propagation of electrical signals along the axon through saltatory conduction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of a synapse?

<p>To serve as the location where neurotransmitters are released to communicate with another neuron. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily happens in the synaptic gap when a synapse becomes active?

<p>Neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic neuron and bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of neurotransmitters, what is the primary difference between an agonist and an antagonist?

<p>Agonists mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter by binding to its receptor, while antagonists block the neurotransmitter from binding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the main components of the central nervous system (CNS)?

<p>Brain and spinal cord (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is psychology?

The scientific study of the mind and behavior

What is Structuralism?

The analysis of the basic elements that constitute the mind

What is Functionalism?

Psychological school of thought that focused on adaptive utility of mental processes

What is Gestalt psychology?

Examines the mind and behavior as a whole

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What is Psychodynamic theory?

Focuses on the influence of unconscious mental processes

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What is behaviorism?

Psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior.

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What is humanistic psychology?

Psychological approach that emphasizes personal growth, free will, and self-awareness

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What is cognitive psychology?

The study of mental processes, such as perception, memory, and reasoning

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What is sociocultural psychology?

Studies the influence of cultural and social norms on behavior

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What is introspection?

Subjective observation of one's own experiences

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What is the biopsychosocial perspective?

Perspective that integrates biological, psychological, and social factors

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What is observation?

Systematic observation to describe behavior. Does not establish causality.

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What is a case study?

In-depth analysis of a unique individual or situation. Usually doesn't inform causality.

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What is correlation?

An observation of the co-occurrence of 2 or more things. Does not inform causality.

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What is an experiment?

Method that can suggest causality by manipulating one variable and measuring its effect on another

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What are independent variables?

Variables manipulated by the experimenter to determine its effects

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What are dependent variables?

Variable measured by the experimenter to see if the independent variable had an effect

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What is a control condition?

Group that receives no treatment; Serves as a comparison to assess treatment effects.

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What are expectancy effects?

A confounding variable where expectations alter experiment results

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What are neurons?

Cells in the nervous system that communicate via electrical and chemical signals

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Action Potential

Electrical signal that travels down a neuron's axon.

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Adrenal Gland

Gland that sits atop the kidneys and secretes stress-related hormones.

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Agonist

Drug that mimics or strengthens the effects of a neurotransmitter.

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All-or-None

The principle that a neuron either fires completely or not at all; there's no partial firing.

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Allele

A specific version of a gene.

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Amygdala

Limbic system structure involved in emotion and emotional memories.

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Antagonist

Drug that blocks or impedes the normal activity of a neurotransmitter.

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Auditory Cortex

Cortex in the temporal lobe responsible for processing auditory information.

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Autonomic Nervous System

Controls internal organs and glands.

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Axon

Major extension of the soma that sends signals.

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Biological Perspective

View that psychological disorders are linked to neurotransmitter imbalances.

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Broca’s Area

Left hemisphere region essential for language production.

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

The brain and spinal cord; the control center of the body.

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Cerebellum

Hindbrain structure that controls balance, coordination, movement, and motor skills.

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Cerebral Cortex

Surface of the brain associated with high-level cognitive functions.

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Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan

Imaging technique using multiple X-rays to create a detailed image.

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Corpus Callosum

Thick band of fibers connecting the brain's hemispheres.

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Dendrite

Branch-like extension of the soma that receives incoming signals.

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Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

A helix-shaped molecule made of nucleotide base pairs that contains genetic information.

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Genotype

Genetic makeup of an individual.

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Phenotype

Manifest traits, including physical and behavioral characteristics

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Diabetes

Disease related to insufficient insulin production.

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Pituitary Gland

Secretes a number of key hormones, which regulate fluid levels in the body.

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Mutation

A sudden, permanent change in the DNA sequence.

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Epigenetics

Study of genes and their expression.

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Multiple Sclerosis

Nervous system breakdown.

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Action Potential Ion Movement

Sodium moves in, Potassium moves out.

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Somatic Nervous System

Controls voluntary muscle movement.

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Parasympathetic Nervous System

Associated with relaxation.

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Central Nervous System

Brain & spinal cord.

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Sympathetic Activation

Associated with the fight or flight response.

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Thalamus

Sensory relay station, except for smell.

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Wernicke's Area Damage

Disrupts language comprehension.

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MRI

Creates pictures with magnetic fields.

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Substantia Nigra

Not a forebrain structure.

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Pancreas Hormones

Glucagon and insulin.

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Genes

Hereditary units located in the cell's nucleus.

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Chromosomes

Structures where genes are grouped together.

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Recombination

Some genetic material crosses over to another chromosome during meiosis.

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Zygote

The joining of an egg and a sperm to form a new individual.

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Gene-environment interaction

Observable characteristics are influenced by genes or environment.

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Neurons

Basic building blocks of the nervous system.

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Glial Cells

Support cells for neurons that provide physical and metabolic support.

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Membrane

The semi-permeable outer boundary of a neuron.

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Soma

The cells body which contains the nucleus.

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Terminal Buttons

Extensions of the axon that release neurotransmitters.

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Myelin Sheath

Insulates axons and helps make nerve conduction faster.

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Nodes of Ranvier

Gaps in between myelin

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Broca's Area

Region specialized for speech production.

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Resting Potential

The resting state of a neuron with a negative charge.

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Synapse

The communication between two neurons.

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Neurotransmitters

Chemical messengers that bind to receptors.

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Endocrine System

Glands that secrete hormones.

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Synapse

The junction between sending/receiving neurons.

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How Genes Translate into Behavior

The process by which genes influence behavior, often involves complex interactions with the environment; genes provide the blueprint, but the environment shapes the expression.

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Monozygotic Twins

Twins that originate from a single zygote that splits early in development, resulting in two individuals with nearly identical genetic material.

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Dizygotic Twins

Twins that originate from two different eggs fertilized by two different sperm during the same pregnancy; they share about 50% of their genes.

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Homozygous Traits

Having two identical alleles for a specific gene.

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Heterozygous Traits

Having two different alleles for a specific gene.

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Mutations: Always Detrimental?

Genetic mutations are changes in DNA sequence and are not always detrimental; sickle cell anemia, can offer protection against malaria.

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Range of Reaction

The range of potential outcomes for a trait based on the interaction of genes and environment.

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Epigenetic Changes

Changes in gene expression that do not involve alterations to the DNA sequence itself.

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Neurons vs. Glial Cells

Neurons transmit signals, while glial cells support, nourish, and protect neurons.

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Neuron Parts & Functions

Dendrites receive signals; cell body integrates signals; axon transmits signals; terminal buttons release neurotransmitters.

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Neuron Membrane Potential

Polarized is the resting state. Depolarized means it's firing. Hyperpolarized it is inhibited.

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Action Potential Principles

Action potential is the electrical signal; refractory period is the recovery time; all-or-none means it fires completely or not at all.

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Elements Needed for Action Potential

Sodium (Na+) and potassium (K+)

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Myelin & Nodes of Ranvier

Myelin is insulation that speeds transmission. Nodes of Ranvier facilitate rapid conduction.

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Multiple Sclerosis (MS)

A disease where Myelin progressively break down.

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Synaptic Gap

The gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released and received.

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Synapse Activation

Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, initiating a signal.

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Ending Synaptic Transmission

Neurotransmitters are cleared by reuptake, enzyme deactivation, or diffusion.

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Agonists vs. Antagonists

Agonists mimic or enhance neurotransmitter effects; antagonists block neurotransmitter effects.

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Study Notes

  • Biopsychology studies human genetics, cells of the nervous system, parts of the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord, and the endocrine system.

  • Understanding genetics informs comprehension of biological factors influencing behaviors.

  • Focus on individual differences from gene and environment interactions is key to biopsychology.

  • Evolutionary psychology studies universal behavior and cognition patterns evolved over time.

  • Genes are hereditary units located in the cell's nucleus.

  • Genes are made of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

  • DNA information determines gene function.

  • Each gene contains information for manufacturing a protein.

  • Genes affect behavior through protein synthesis.

  • Genotype: inherited traits (genes).

  • Phenotype: expressed traits (genes + environment).

  • Genes group into chromosomes.

  • Humans have 23 chromosome pairs; the 23rd determines sex.

  • Chromosomal abnormalities can cause conditions.

  • Body cells constantly divide into two identical cells.

  • Sexual cells divide into four different cells.

  • Female parent cells yield 4 eggs (one survives).

  • Male parent cells yield 4 sperm (all survive).

  • Recombination: genetic material crosses to another chromosome.

  • Recombination can occur at all chromosome levels.

  • Each sperm and egg differ from each other due to recombination.

  • Each sperm and egg contain 50% of the parent's genetic information.

  • Zygote: Formed by egg and sperm joining.

  • An allele is a version of gene.

  • We inherit one allele from each parent.

  • Homozygous: paired identical alleles.

  • Heterozygous: paired different alleles.

  • Recessive traits express only in homozygous conditions.

  • Dominant traits express in homozygous or heterozygous conditions.

  • Mutations are sudden, permanent gene changes.

  • Most mutations are harmful, some beneficial.

  • Sickle cell anemia and resistance to malaria are examples of mutations.

  • An mutation and sexual reproduction lead to genetic variability.

  • Natural selection acts on variability.

  • Best-adapted organisms survive and pass on genes.

  • Range of reaction: Genes set potential limits; environment determines achievement.

  • Genes determine potential intelligence; environment allows expression.

  • Genetic-environmental interaction: Genes influence environment, and vice versa.

  • Epigenetics: Experiences change genetic material.

  • Children of PTSD men often have higher anxiety.

  • Neurons process information.

  • Glial cells support neurons.

  • Glial cell functions: scaffolding, insulation, nutrient transport, waste processing, immunity, dead cell disposal.

  • Glial cells number similar to neurons.

  • Neurons are nervous system building blocks.

  • Humans are born with ~100 billion neurons.

  • Neurons specialize in electrical signal transmission.

  • Neurons have three functions: reception, conduction, and transmission.

  • Membrane: semi-permeable, allows molecule passage.

  • Soma: cell body, contains nucleus.

  • Dendrites: soma extensions, receive inputs.

  • Axon: long extension, transmits electrical signals.

  • Terminal buttons: axon extensions, release neurotransmitters.

  • The membrane separates the fluid outside the cell from the cytoplasm

  • When the neuron is at rest it has a negative charge called resting potential and the membrane is polarized

  • When the neuron is polarized there is more potassium inside the cell than sodium

  • All ions move from areas of high concentration to areas of low concentration so sodium is attracted to the inside while potassium is attracted to the outside of the cell

  • When the cell is activated "gates" open in the membrane and allow sodium to enter the cell

  • Action potential starts at the dendrites and ends at the axon terminals

  • A neuron's firing is all-or-none where all action potentials have the same potency

  • Speed an action potential travels depends on the length of the neuron and whether the neuron is maximized for speed with a range of 2-270

  • Glial cells cover some axons with a myelin sheath, which is a fatty substance to insulate the axons

  • Where myelin is present the area appears white, where it is not it appears gray

  • A mutation is a sudden, permanent change in a sequence of DNA.

  • Genotype refers to a person’s genetic makeup, while phenotype refers to a person’s physical characteristics.

  • Epigenetics is the field of study that focuses on genes and their expression.

  • Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes.

  • Dendrites receive incoming signals from other neurons.

  • An agonist facilitates or mimics the activity of a given neurotransmitter system.

  • Multiple sclerosis involves a breakdown of the myelin sheath.

  • An action potential involves Na+ moving inside the cell and K+ moving outside the cell.

  • Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the somatic nervous system.

  • If the parasympathetic nervous system is activated, you will feel relatively at ease.

  • The central nervous system is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.

  • Sympathetic activation is associated with pupil dilation and increased heart rate.

  • The thalamus is a sensory relay station where all sensory information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other areas of the brain for further processing.

  • Damage to Wernicke’s Area disrupts one’s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one’s ability to produce words intact.

  • An MRI uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given tissue.

  • The substantia nigra is not a structure of the forebrain.

  • The two major hormones secreted from the pancreas are glucagon and insulin.

  • The pituitary secretes messenger hormones that direct the function of the rest of the endocrine glands.

  • The adrenal gland secretes epinephrine.

  • The pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate the body’s fluid levels. </existing_notes>


- Biopsychology studies human genetics, cells of the nervous system, parts of the nervous system, the brain and spinal cord, and the endocrine system.
- Understanding genetics informs comprehension of biological factors influencing behaviors.
- Evolutionary psychology studies universal behavior and cognition patterns evolved over time.
- Genes are hereditary units located in the cell's nucleus, and composed of DNA.
- Each gene contains information for manufacturing a protein, and affect behavior through protein synthesis.
- A sudden, permanent change in a sequence of DNA is a mutation.
- Phenotype: expressed traits (genes + environment).
- Humans have 23 chromosome pairs; the 23rd determines sex.
- Body cells constantly divide into two identical cells.
- An allele is a version of gene, and we inherit one allele from each parent.
- Best-adapted organisms survive and pass on genes due to natural selection.
- Glial cells support neurons.
- Neurons: nervous system building components, specialize in electrical signal transmission.
- Soma: cell body, contains nucleus.
- Dendrites receive inputs.
- Where myelin is present the area appears white, where it is not it appears gray
An agonist facilitates or mimics the activity of a given neurotransmitter systems.
-  Multiple sclerosis involves a breakdown of the myelin sheath.
-  In an action potential Na+ moves inside the cell and K+ moves outside the cell
-  Our ability to make our legs move as we walk across the room is controlled by the somatic nervous system.
-   If the parasympathetic nervous system is activated, you will feel relatively at ease.
-   The central nervous system is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
- Sympathetic activation is associated with pupil dilation and increased heart rate.
-   The thalamus is a sensory relay station where all sensory information, except for smell, goes before being sent to other areas of the brain for further processing.
-   Damage to Wernicke’s Area disrupts one’s ability to comprehend language, but it leaves one’s ability to produce words intact.
-   An MRI uses magnetic fields to create pictures of a given tissue.
-   The substantia nigra is not a structure of the forebrain.
-   The two major hormones secreted from the pancreas are glucagon and insulin.
- The pituitary secretes messenger hormones that direct the function of the rest of the endocrine glands.
-   The adrenal gland secretes epinephrine.
- The pituitary gland secretes hormones that regulate the body’s fluid levels.

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