Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
- Vision
- Motor control and concentration (correct)
- Facial recognition
- Hearing
What is the purpose of the tone test in neurological exams?
What is the purpose of the tone test in neurological exams?
- To evaluate resistance to passive movement of a joint (correct)
- To measure consciousness levels
- To assess reflexes
- To test sensation
What is meant by decussation of the cranial and spinal nerves?
What is meant by decussation of the cranial and spinal nerves?
- The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body
- The brain and spinal cord are separate entities
- The right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain (correct)
- The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body
What type of stroke is caused by a blocked blood supply?
What type of stroke is caused by a blocked blood supply?
What is the purpose of the AVPU scale?
What is the purpose of the AVPU scale?
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
What does the 'F' in the FAST acronym stand for?
What does the 'F' in the FAST acronym stand for?
What is the most common type of stroke?
What is the most common type of stroke?
What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
What is a risk factor for stroke?
What is a risk factor for stroke?
What is the treatment for ischemic stroke?
What is the treatment for ischemic stroke?
What is the cause of an ischemic stroke?
What is the cause of an ischemic stroke?
What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is a symptom of a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is a symptom of a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is the treatment for a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is the treatment for a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is an extra dural haematoma?
What is an extra dural haematoma?
What is the definition of epilepsy?
What is the definition of epilepsy?
What are Tonic-Clonic seizures also referred to as?
What are Tonic-Clonic seizures also referred to as?
What is an absence seizure?
What is an absence seizure?
What is a myoclonic seizure?
What is a myoclonic seizure?
What is a tonic seizure?
What is a tonic seizure?
What is the main treatment for epilepsy?
What is the main treatment for epilepsy?
What percentage of people with epilepsy use AEDs to control their seizures?
What percentage of people with epilepsy use AEDs to control their seizures?
What is the purpose of an EEG investigation in diagnosing epilepsy?
What is the purpose of an EEG investigation in diagnosing epilepsy?
What is a key requirement for the use of AEDs?
What is a key requirement for the use of AEDs?
What is the definition of status epilepticus?
What is the definition of status epilepticus?
What are the two characteristics of trigeminal neuralgia?
What are the two characteristics of trigeminal neuralgia?
What is a potential cause of trigeminal neuralgia?
What is a potential cause of trigeminal neuralgia?
What is the primary area of the body affected by glossopharyngeal neuralgia?
What is the primary area of the body affected by glossopharyngeal neuralgia?
What is post-herpetic neuralgia characterised by?
What is post-herpetic neuralgia characterised by?
What is the primary area of the body affected by trigeminal autonomic cephalgia?
What is the primary area of the body affected by trigeminal autonomic cephalgia?
What is used to treat burning mouth syndrome?
What is used to treat burning mouth syndrome?
What is a potential side effect of Phenytoin on oral health?
What is a potential side effect of Phenytoin on oral health?
What is the main characteristic of multiple sclerosis?
What is the main characteristic of multiple sclerosis?
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis?
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis?
What is the primary reason for taking a pain history in identifying facial pains?
What is the primary reason for taking a pain history in identifying facial pains?
What is the most common source of facial pain?
What is the most common source of facial pain?
What is the term for pain from a normally non-painful stimulus?
What is the term for pain from a normally non-painful stimulus?
What is the term for an increased response to a normally painful stimulus?
What is the term for an increased response to a normally painful stimulus?
What is the term for an unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked?
What is the term for an unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked?
What is the dental relevance of multiple sclerosis?
What is the dental relevance of multiple sclerosis?
What is topiramate, and what is its potential effect on pregnant women?
What is topiramate, and what is its potential effect on pregnant women?
What is the role of cyclin D in the cell cycle?
What is the role of cyclin D in the cell cycle?
What is a characteristic of neoplasia?
What is a characteristic of neoplasia?
What is a hallmark of cancer?
What is a hallmark of cancer?
What can slow down the cell cycle?
What can slow down the cell cycle?
What is the role of an oncogene?
What is the role of an oncogene?
What is a characteristic of a tumour?
What is a characteristic of a tumour?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What are the three steps in carcinogenesis?
What are the three steps in carcinogenesis?
What does tumour heterogeneity describe?
What does tumour heterogeneity describe?
What are the two suppressor genes that are mutated in 50% of breast cancer patients?
What are the two suppressor genes that are mutated in 50% of breast cancer patients?
What is the importance of Xeroderma Pigmentosum in DNA repair?
What is the importance of Xeroderma Pigmentosum in DNA repair?
What is the consequence of Xeroderma Pigmentosum?
What is the consequence of Xeroderma Pigmentosum?
What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the development of retinoblastoma?
What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the development of retinoblastoma?
What is the function of the p53 tumour suppressor gene when DNA is damaged?
What is the function of the p53 tumour suppressor gene when DNA is damaged?
What is the name of the syndrome characterized by germline mutations in p53?
What is the name of the syndrome characterized by germline mutations in p53?
What is the function of the APC/Beta-catenin gene?
What is the function of the APC/Beta-catenin gene?
What is the process by which cancer cells evade the immune system?
What is the process by which cancer cells evade the immune system?
What is the name of the immunotherapy drug approved by NICE in 2017 for management in head and neck cancer?
What is the name of the immunotherapy drug approved by NICE in 2017 for management in head and neck cancer?
What is the term for the process by which cancer cells adapt to more glycolytic pathways of metabolism?
What is the term for the process by which cancer cells adapt to more glycolytic pathways of metabolism?
What is the name of the virus that causes kaposi sarcoma?
What is the name of the virus that causes kaposi sarcoma?
What is the term for the process by which a tumour outgrows its own blood supply and induces its own blood supply?
What is the term for the process by which a tumour outgrows its own blood supply and induces its own blood supply?
What is the name of the protein that enables DNA damage repair?
What is the name of the protein that enables DNA damage repair?
What type of signaling occurs when a ligand binds to a receptor on the same cell?
What type of signaling occurs when a ligand binds to a receptor on the same cell?
Which oncogene, when overexpressed, can cause breast cancer?
Which oncogene, when overexpressed, can cause breast cancer?
What is the mechanism of action of Ras?
What is the mechanism of action of Ras?
What is the result of gene amplification?
What is the result of gene amplification?
What type of genes regulate cellular proliferation and can be inactivated in neoplasia?
What type of genes regulate cellular proliferation and can be inactivated in neoplasia?
What is the role of E2 in the cell cycle?
What is the role of E2 in the cell cycle?
What is retinoblastoma?
What is retinoblastoma?
What is the result of a gene translocation?
What is the result of a gene translocation?
What is the mechanism of action of cetuximab?
What is the mechanism of action of cetuximab?
What is the percentage of pancreatic cancer tumors with Ras point mutations?
What is the percentage of pancreatic cancer tumors with Ras point mutations?
Where do B lymphocytes originate and mature?
Where do B lymphocytes originate and mature?
What is the process to form a mature naive B cell?
What is the process to form a mature naive B cell?
What is the role of the Fab region of an antibody?
What is the role of the Fab region of an antibody?
What are the two polypeptide chains that make up an antibody?
What are the two polypeptide chains that make up an antibody?
What is the role of antibodies?
What is the role of antibodies?
What are the two domains of the antibody that form the binding site for antigens?
What are the two domains of the antibody that form the binding site for antigens?
What is the primary function of B cells in the bone marrow?
What is the primary function of B cells in the bone marrow?
What determines the outcomes of B cells in the bone marrow?
What determines the outcomes of B cells in the bone marrow?
What is the function of Fc receptors in B cell activation?
What is the function of Fc receptors in B cell activation?
What is the function of Th cells in B cell activation?
What is the function of Th cells in B cell activation?
What is the result of class switching in B cells?
What is the result of class switching in B cells?
What is the role of Activation Induced Cytidine Deaminase (AID) in B cells?
What is the role of Activation Induced Cytidine Deaminase (AID) in B cells?
What is the result of somatic hypermutation in B cells?
What is the result of somatic hypermutation in B cells?
What is the role of Th1 response in class switching?
What is the role of Th1 response in class switching?
What cytokine blocks IgA activation?
What cytokine blocks IgA activation?
What is the result of simultaneous class switching and somatic hypermutation?
What is the result of simultaneous class switching and somatic hypermutation?
What is the primary function of the hinge region of an antibody?
What is the primary function of the hinge region of an antibody?
What is the role of the C-terminal region of the heavy chain?
What is the role of the C-terminal region of the heavy chain?
What is an epitope?
What is an epitope?
How can individual antigens bind to different antibodies of different specificities?
How can individual antigens bind to different antibodies of different specificities?
What is an immune complex?
What is an immune complex?
How are antibodies bound to antigens?
How are antibodies bound to antigens?
What is the role of the Fc region?
What is the role of the Fc region?
What are the two main effector functions of antibodies?
What are the two main effector functions of antibodies?
What is the role of IgE antibodies?
What is the role of IgE antibodies?
What is the primary function of IgA antibodies?
What is the primary function of IgA antibodies?
What contributes to the diversity of antibodies?
What contributes to the diversity of antibodies?
What is the primary characteristic of neoplasia?
What is the primary characteristic of neoplasia?
What is the term for a change from one to another normal differentiated cell type within a tissue?
What is the term for a change from one to another normal differentiated cell type within a tissue?
What is the term for an increase in the size of cells in a tissue?
What is the term for an increase in the size of cells in a tissue?
What is the term for a state in some tissues which denotes an increased risk of malignant change?
What is the term for a state in some tissues which denotes an increased risk of malignant change?
What is the term for a swelling, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue whether benign or malignant?
What is the term for a swelling, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue whether benign or malignant?
What are the two behaviours of tumours?
What are the two behaviours of tumours?
What is the primary reason for an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma in individuals over 50 years old?
What is the primary reason for an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma in individuals over 50 years old?
What is the term for the process by which cancer spreads from the primary tumour to distant organs or lymph nodes?
What is the term for the process by which cancer spreads from the primary tumour to distant organs or lymph nodes?
What is the primary difference between well-differentiated and poorly differentiated tumours?
What is the primary difference between well-differentiated and poorly differentiated tumours?
What is the purpose of the TNM staging system for cancer?
What is the purpose of the TNM staging system for cancer?
What is the term for the secretion of hormones or other substances by a tumour that would not normally be produced by that particular tumour cell type?
What is the term for the secretion of hormones or other substances by a tumour that would not normally be produced by that particular tumour cell type?
What is the primary difference between subjective and objective observations concerning prognosis?
What is the primary difference between subjective and objective observations concerning prognosis?
What is the term for the systematic search for cancer in people who have no signs or symptoms of cancer?
What is the term for the systematic search for cancer in people who have no signs or symptoms of cancer?
What is the primary purpose of radiology in diagnosing a tumour?
What is the primary purpose of radiology in diagnosing a tumour?
What is the term for the formation of new blood vessels that can support tumour growth?
What is the term for the formation of new blood vessels that can support tumour growth?
What are the three well-established cancer screening programmes?
What are the three well-established cancer screening programmes?
What is an example of metaplasia?
What is an example of metaplasia?
What is the main difference between benign and malignant tumours?
What is the main difference between benign and malignant tumours?
What is the suffix '-oma' typically associated with?
What is the suffix '-oma' typically associated with?
What type of tissue can undergo cancer?
What type of tissue can undergo cancer?
What is a lymphoma?
What is a lymphoma?
What is the name of the virus associated with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma?
What is the name of the virus associated with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma?
What is the role of squamous epithelium in the mouth?
What is the role of squamous epithelium in the mouth?
What is the most common cancer of the mouth?
What is the most common cancer of the mouth?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What is an example of dysplasia?
What is an example of dysplasia?
Study Notes
Here are the study notes in detailed bullet points:
Neurology
- Neurology refers to the branch of medicine or biology that deals with the anatomy, functions, and organic disorders of nerves and the nervous system.
- Cranial and spinal nerves decussate, meaning the right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain.
Brain Function
- The brain has 5 areas with specific roles:
- Frontal lobe: motor control, concentration, planning, problem-solving, speech, and smell
- Parietal lobe: touch and pressure, taste, and body awareness
- Temporal lobe: hearing and facial recognition
- Occipital lobe: vision
- Cerebellum: coordination
Neurological Pathologies
- Stroke:
- A focal neurological deficit that lasts longer than 24 hours, resulting from a vascular lesion
- Can be ischemic (80%) or hemorrhagic (20%)
- Ischemic stroke caused by a blockage in blood supply, treated with thrombolysis
- Hemorrhagic stroke caused by bleeding in the brain, no specific treatment
- Transient ischemic attack (TIA):
- Focal neurological deficit that lasts less than 24 hours, resulting from a vascular lesion
- Temporary, as the deficit fully resolves
- Risk factors for stroke:
- Diabetes, smoking, obesity, oestrogen OCP, excess EtOH, polycythaemia, atheroma, hereditary nature, and hypertension
Stroke Diagnosis and Treatment
- The FAST acronym to identify stroke:
- F - Face: asymmetry of the face
- A - Arm: weakness in the arms
- S - Speech: slurring of speech
- T - Time: time to phone for help
- Symptoms of stroke:
- Palsy
- Sudden severe headache with no known cause
- Confusion, trouble speaking or understanding speech
- Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes
- Ataxia, trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance, or lack of coordination
- Treatment and risk reduction:
- Ischemic stroke: thrombolysis
- Hemorrhagic stroke: no specific treatment
- Chronic stroke: NG feeding, rehabilitation, occupational therapy, and secondary risk factor management
Epilepsy
- Definition: a neurological disorder marked by sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance, loss of consciousness, or convulsions, associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain
- Layman's terms: temporary bursts of electrical activity in the brain that affects how the brain works
- Duration and management: lifelong, managed with anti-convulsants
- Types of seizures:
- Tonic-clonic (Grand-Mal)
- Simple partial
- Complex partial
- Absence
- Myoclonic
- Clonic
- Tonic
- Atonic
- Status epilepticus
- Triggers: stress, fatigue, lights, alcohol, missing medication, coffee, and nicotine
- Investigations: CT scan, MRI, EEG, and blood tests
- Treatments: anti-epileptic drugs, surgery, electrical devices, ketogenic diet, and avoiding triggers
Multiple Sclerosis
- Definition: areas of demyelination in the CNS
- Pathology: peri-venular plaques of demyelination known as perineural oedemas
- Predilection areas: optic nerves, brainstem and cerebellar connections, and cervical spinal cord
- Symptoms: chronic fatigue, axonal blockade, and optic neuritis
- Investigations: MRI of the brain and spinal cord, and electrophysiology
- Types of MS: primary progressive, secondary progressive, and benign
- Dental relevance: people living with MS may be at increased risk of dental diseases due to reduced manual dexterity and side effects of medications
Pain
- Allodynia: pain from normally non-painful stimuli
- Hyperalgesia: increased response to normally painful stimuli
- Dysaesthesia: unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked
- Paraesthesia: abnormal sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked but not unpleasant
- Hypoalgesia: diminished pain response to painful stimuli
- Anaesthesia: no pain from painful stimuli
- Neuralgia: nerve distribution pain
- Neuropathic pain: nerve pathology/damage pain
- Neuropathy: nerve function/damage/pathology pain
- Sources of facial pain:
- Dental pain
- Trigeminal neuralgia
- Trigeminal neuropathic pain
- Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia
- Post-herpetic neuralgia
- Importance of taking a pain history in identifying facial pains
Trigeminal Neuralgia
- Recurrent, brief, lancing pain lasting approximately 30 seconds
- Trigger zones on the skin from wind and shaving
- Potential cause: MS
- Treatments: anti-convulsants, LA injections, nerve ablation, and vascular decompression
Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
- Pain in the ear, base of tongue, tonsillar fossa, and angle of jaw
- Triggered by chewing, swallowing, talking, yawning, and coughing
- Affects the sensory areas of the glossopharyngeal nerve
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Description
This quiz covers key concepts in neurology, including brain function, neurological pathologies, stroke diagnosis and treatment, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, pain, and trigeminal neuralgia. Brush up on your knowledge of the nervous system and its disorders!
