Podcast
Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
What is the primary function of the frontal lobe?
What is the purpose of the tone test in neurological exams?
What is the purpose of the tone test in neurological exams?
What is meant by decussation of the cranial and spinal nerves?
What is meant by decussation of the cranial and spinal nerves?
What type of stroke is caused by a blocked blood supply?
What type of stroke is caused by a blocked blood supply?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the purpose of the AVPU scale?
What is the purpose of the AVPU scale?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
What is the role of the parietal lobe?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the 'F' in the FAST acronym stand for?
What does the 'F' in the FAST acronym stand for?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the most common type of stroke?
What is the most common type of stroke?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
What is a transient ischemic attack (TIA)?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a risk factor for stroke?
What is a risk factor for stroke?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the treatment for ischemic stroke?
What is the treatment for ischemic stroke?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the cause of an ischemic stroke?
What is the cause of an ischemic stroke?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a symptom of a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is a symptom of a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the treatment for a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
What is the treatment for a subarachnoid haemorrhage?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an extra dural haematoma?
What is an extra dural haematoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the definition of epilepsy?
What is the definition of epilepsy?
Signup and view all the answers
What are Tonic-Clonic seizures also referred to as?
What are Tonic-Clonic seizures also referred to as?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an absence seizure?
What is an absence seizure?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a myoclonic seizure?
What is a myoclonic seizure?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a tonic seizure?
What is a tonic seizure?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main treatment for epilepsy?
What is the main treatment for epilepsy?
Signup and view all the answers
What percentage of people with epilepsy use AEDs to control their seizures?
What percentage of people with epilepsy use AEDs to control their seizures?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the purpose of an EEG investigation in diagnosing epilepsy?
What is the purpose of an EEG investigation in diagnosing epilepsy?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a key requirement for the use of AEDs?
What is a key requirement for the use of AEDs?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the definition of status epilepticus?
What is the definition of status epilepticus?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two characteristics of trigeminal neuralgia?
What are the two characteristics of trigeminal neuralgia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a potential cause of trigeminal neuralgia?
What is a potential cause of trigeminal neuralgia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary area of the body affected by glossopharyngeal neuralgia?
What is the primary area of the body affected by glossopharyngeal neuralgia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is post-herpetic neuralgia characterised by?
What is post-herpetic neuralgia characterised by?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary area of the body affected by trigeminal autonomic cephalgia?
What is the primary area of the body affected by trigeminal autonomic cephalgia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is used to treat burning mouth syndrome?
What is used to treat burning mouth syndrome?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a potential side effect of Phenytoin on oral health?
What is a potential side effect of Phenytoin on oral health?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main characteristic of multiple sclerosis?
What is the main characteristic of multiple sclerosis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis?
What is a common symptom of multiple sclerosis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary reason for taking a pain history in identifying facial pains?
What is the primary reason for taking a pain history in identifying facial pains?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the most common source of facial pain?
What is the most common source of facial pain?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for pain from a normally non-painful stimulus?
What is the term for pain from a normally non-painful stimulus?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for an increased response to a normally painful stimulus?
What is the term for an increased response to a normally painful stimulus?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for an unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked?
What is the term for an unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the dental relevance of multiple sclerosis?
What is the dental relevance of multiple sclerosis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is topiramate, and what is its potential effect on pregnant women?
What is topiramate, and what is its potential effect on pregnant women?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of cyclin D in the cell cycle?
What is the role of cyclin D in the cell cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of neoplasia?
What is a characteristic of neoplasia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a hallmark of cancer?
What is a hallmark of cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What can slow down the cell cycle?
What can slow down the cell cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of an oncogene?
What is the role of an oncogene?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a characteristic of a tumour?
What is a characteristic of a tumour?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the three steps in carcinogenesis?
What are the three steps in carcinogenesis?
Signup and view all the answers
What does tumour heterogeneity describe?
What does tumour heterogeneity describe?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two suppressor genes that are mutated in 50% of breast cancer patients?
What are the two suppressor genes that are mutated in 50% of breast cancer patients?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the importance of Xeroderma Pigmentosum in DNA repair?
What is the importance of Xeroderma Pigmentosum in DNA repair?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the consequence of Xeroderma Pigmentosum?
What is the consequence of Xeroderma Pigmentosum?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the development of retinoblastoma?
What is the name of the hypothesis that explains the development of retinoblastoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the p53 tumour suppressor gene when DNA is damaged?
What is the function of the p53 tumour suppressor gene when DNA is damaged?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the syndrome characterized by germline mutations in p53?
What is the name of the syndrome characterized by germline mutations in p53?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of the APC/Beta-catenin gene?
What is the function of the APC/Beta-catenin gene?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the process by which cancer cells evade the immune system?
What is the process by which cancer cells evade the immune system?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the immunotherapy drug approved by NICE in 2017 for management in head and neck cancer?
What is the name of the immunotherapy drug approved by NICE in 2017 for management in head and neck cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the process by which cancer cells adapt to more glycolytic pathways of metabolism?
What is the term for the process by which cancer cells adapt to more glycolytic pathways of metabolism?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the virus that causes kaposi sarcoma?
What is the name of the virus that causes kaposi sarcoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the process by which a tumour outgrows its own blood supply and induces its own blood supply?
What is the term for the process by which a tumour outgrows its own blood supply and induces its own blood supply?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the protein that enables DNA damage repair?
What is the name of the protein that enables DNA damage repair?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of signaling occurs when a ligand binds to a receptor on the same cell?
What type of signaling occurs when a ligand binds to a receptor on the same cell?
Signup and view all the answers
Which oncogene, when overexpressed, can cause breast cancer?
Which oncogene, when overexpressed, can cause breast cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the mechanism of action of Ras?
What is the mechanism of action of Ras?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of gene amplification?
What is the result of gene amplification?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of genes regulate cellular proliferation and can be inactivated in neoplasia?
What type of genes regulate cellular proliferation and can be inactivated in neoplasia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of E2 in the cell cycle?
What is the role of E2 in the cell cycle?
Signup and view all the answers
What is retinoblastoma?
What is retinoblastoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of a gene translocation?
What is the result of a gene translocation?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the mechanism of action of cetuximab?
What is the mechanism of action of cetuximab?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the percentage of pancreatic cancer tumors with Ras point mutations?
What is the percentage of pancreatic cancer tumors with Ras point mutations?
Signup and view all the answers
Where do B lymphocytes originate and mature?
Where do B lymphocytes originate and mature?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the process to form a mature naive B cell?
What is the process to form a mature naive B cell?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the Fab region of an antibody?
What is the role of the Fab region of an antibody?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two polypeptide chains that make up an antibody?
What are the two polypeptide chains that make up an antibody?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of antibodies?
What is the role of antibodies?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two domains of the antibody that form the binding site for antigens?
What are the two domains of the antibody that form the binding site for antigens?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of B cells in the bone marrow?
What is the primary function of B cells in the bone marrow?
Signup and view all the answers
What determines the outcomes of B cells in the bone marrow?
What determines the outcomes of B cells in the bone marrow?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of Fc receptors in B cell activation?
What is the function of Fc receptors in B cell activation?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of Th cells in B cell activation?
What is the function of Th cells in B cell activation?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of class switching in B cells?
What is the result of class switching in B cells?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of Activation Induced Cytidine Deaminase (AID) in B cells?
What is the role of Activation Induced Cytidine Deaminase (AID) in B cells?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of somatic hypermutation in B cells?
What is the result of somatic hypermutation in B cells?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of Th1 response in class switching?
What is the role of Th1 response in class switching?
Signup and view all the answers
What cytokine blocks IgA activation?
What cytokine blocks IgA activation?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of simultaneous class switching and somatic hypermutation?
What is the result of simultaneous class switching and somatic hypermutation?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the hinge region of an antibody?
What is the primary function of the hinge region of an antibody?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the C-terminal region of the heavy chain?
What is the role of the C-terminal region of the heavy chain?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an epitope?
What is an epitope?
Signup and view all the answers
How can individual antigens bind to different antibodies of different specificities?
How can individual antigens bind to different antibodies of different specificities?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an immune complex?
What is an immune complex?
Signup and view all the answers
How are antibodies bound to antigens?
How are antibodies bound to antigens?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the Fc region?
What is the role of the Fc region?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two main effector functions of antibodies?
What are the two main effector functions of antibodies?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of IgE antibodies?
What is the role of IgE antibodies?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of IgA antibodies?
What is the primary function of IgA antibodies?
Signup and view all the answers
What contributes to the diversity of antibodies?
What contributes to the diversity of antibodies?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary characteristic of neoplasia?
What is the primary characteristic of neoplasia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for a change from one to another normal differentiated cell type within a tissue?
What is the term for a change from one to another normal differentiated cell type within a tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for an increase in the size of cells in a tissue?
What is the term for an increase in the size of cells in a tissue?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for a state in some tissues which denotes an increased risk of malignant change?
What is the term for a state in some tissues which denotes an increased risk of malignant change?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for a swelling, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue whether benign or malignant?
What is the term for a swelling, generally without inflammation, caused by an abnormal growth of tissue whether benign or malignant?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the two behaviours of tumours?
What are the two behaviours of tumours?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary reason for an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma in individuals over 50 years old?
What is the primary reason for an increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma in individuals over 50 years old?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the process by which cancer spreads from the primary tumour to distant organs or lymph nodes?
What is the term for the process by which cancer spreads from the primary tumour to distant organs or lymph nodes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary difference between well-differentiated and poorly differentiated tumours?
What is the primary difference between well-differentiated and poorly differentiated tumours?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the purpose of the TNM staging system for cancer?
What is the purpose of the TNM staging system for cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the secretion of hormones or other substances by a tumour that would not normally be produced by that particular tumour cell type?
What is the term for the secretion of hormones or other substances by a tumour that would not normally be produced by that particular tumour cell type?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary difference between subjective and objective observations concerning prognosis?
What is the primary difference between subjective and objective observations concerning prognosis?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the systematic search for cancer in people who have no signs or symptoms of cancer?
What is the term for the systematic search for cancer in people who have no signs or symptoms of cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary purpose of radiology in diagnosing a tumour?
What is the primary purpose of radiology in diagnosing a tumour?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the term for the formation of new blood vessels that can support tumour growth?
What is the term for the formation of new blood vessels that can support tumour growth?
Signup and view all the answers
What are the three well-established cancer screening programmes?
What are the three well-established cancer screening programmes?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an example of metaplasia?
What is an example of metaplasia?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main difference between benign and malignant tumours?
What is the main difference between benign and malignant tumours?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the suffix '-oma' typically associated with?
What is the suffix '-oma' typically associated with?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of tissue can undergo cancer?
What type of tissue can undergo cancer?
Signup and view all the answers
What is a lymphoma?
What is a lymphoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the name of the virus associated with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma?
What is the name of the virus associated with oropharyngeal squamous cell carcinoma?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of squamous epithelium in the mouth?
What is the role of squamous epithelium in the mouth?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the most common cancer of the mouth?
What is the most common cancer of the mouth?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
What is the result of DNA damage that hasn't been repaired?
Signup and view all the answers
What is an example of dysplasia?
What is an example of dysplasia?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Here are the study notes in detailed bullet points:
Neurology
- Neurology refers to the branch of medicine or biology that deals with the anatomy, functions, and organic disorders of nerves and the nervous system.
- Cranial and spinal nerves decussate, meaning the right side of the body is controlled by the left side of the brain.
Brain Function
- The brain has 5 areas with specific roles:
- Frontal lobe: motor control, concentration, planning, problem-solving, speech, and smell
- Parietal lobe: touch and pressure, taste, and body awareness
- Temporal lobe: hearing and facial recognition
- Occipital lobe: vision
- Cerebellum: coordination
Neurological Pathologies
- Stroke:
- A focal neurological deficit that lasts longer than 24 hours, resulting from a vascular lesion
- Can be ischemic (80%) or hemorrhagic (20%)
- Ischemic stroke caused by a blockage in blood supply, treated with thrombolysis
- Hemorrhagic stroke caused by bleeding in the brain, no specific treatment
- Transient ischemic attack (TIA):
- Focal neurological deficit that lasts less than 24 hours, resulting from a vascular lesion
- Temporary, as the deficit fully resolves
- Risk factors for stroke:
- Diabetes, smoking, obesity, oestrogen OCP, excess EtOH, polycythaemia, atheroma, hereditary nature, and hypertension
Stroke Diagnosis and Treatment
- The FAST acronym to identify stroke:
- F - Face: asymmetry of the face
- A - Arm: weakness in the arms
- S - Speech: slurring of speech
- T - Time: time to phone for help
- Symptoms of stroke:
- Palsy
- Sudden severe headache with no known cause
- Confusion, trouble speaking or understanding speech
- Sudden trouble seeing in one or both eyes
- Ataxia, trouble walking, dizziness, loss of balance, or lack of coordination
- Treatment and risk reduction:
- Ischemic stroke: thrombolysis
- Hemorrhagic stroke: no specific treatment
- Chronic stroke: NG feeding, rehabilitation, occupational therapy, and secondary risk factor management
Epilepsy
- Definition: a neurological disorder marked by sudden recurrent episodes of sensory disturbance, loss of consciousness, or convulsions, associated with abnormal electrical activity in the brain
- Layman's terms: temporary bursts of electrical activity in the brain that affects how the brain works
- Duration and management: lifelong, managed with anti-convulsants
- Types of seizures:
- Tonic-clonic (Grand-Mal)
- Simple partial
- Complex partial
- Absence
- Myoclonic
- Clonic
- Tonic
- Atonic
- Status epilepticus
- Triggers: stress, fatigue, lights, alcohol, missing medication, coffee, and nicotine
- Investigations: CT scan, MRI, EEG, and blood tests
- Treatments: anti-epileptic drugs, surgery, electrical devices, ketogenic diet, and avoiding triggers
Multiple Sclerosis
- Definition: areas of demyelination in the CNS
- Pathology: peri-venular plaques of demyelination known as perineural oedemas
- Predilection areas: optic nerves, brainstem and cerebellar connections, and cervical spinal cord
- Symptoms: chronic fatigue, axonal blockade, and optic neuritis
- Investigations: MRI of the brain and spinal cord, and electrophysiology
- Types of MS: primary progressive, secondary progressive, and benign
- Dental relevance: people living with MS may be at increased risk of dental diseases due to reduced manual dexterity and side effects of medications
Pain
- Allodynia: pain from normally non-painful stimuli
- Hyperalgesia: increased response to normally painful stimuli
- Dysaesthesia: unpleasant sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked
- Paraesthesia: abnormal sensation that is either spontaneous or evoked but not unpleasant
- Hypoalgesia: diminished pain response to painful stimuli
- Anaesthesia: no pain from painful stimuli
- Neuralgia: nerve distribution pain
- Neuropathic pain: nerve pathology/damage pain
- Neuropathy: nerve function/damage/pathology pain
- Sources of facial pain:
- Dental pain
- Trigeminal neuralgia
- Trigeminal neuropathic pain
- Trigeminal autonomic cephalgia
- Post-herpetic neuralgia
- Importance of taking a pain history in identifying facial pains
Trigeminal Neuralgia
- Recurrent, brief, lancing pain lasting approximately 30 seconds
- Trigger zones on the skin from wind and shaving
- Potential cause: MS
- Treatments: anti-convulsants, LA injections, nerve ablation, and vascular decompression
Glossopharyngeal Neuralgia
- Pain in the ear, base of tongue, tonsillar fossa, and angle of jaw
- Triggered by chewing, swallowing, talking, yawning, and coughing
- Affects the sensory areas of the glossopharyngeal nerve
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Description
This quiz covers key concepts in neurology, including brain function, neurological pathologies, stroke diagnosis and treatment, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, pain, and trigeminal neuralgia. Brush up on your knowledge of the nervous system and its disorders!