Nutrition: Vitamins, Gut Health and Fatty Acids

Short-Chain Fatty Acids

• Enhance colonic blood flow
• Increase fecal volume
• Promote peristalsis

Vitamin B12

• Transcobalamin II degrades inside the cell, releasing cobalamin
• The liver stores the highest amount of vitamin B12
• Cobalamin is the anti-pernicious anemia factor
• Methylcobalamin and 5' deoxyadensoilcobalamin act as coenzymes in humans

Gut Microbiota

• It produces acetate, propionate, and butyrate
• Vitamins produced by gut bacteria are absorbed in the colon
• Microbes outnumber cells in the human body
• Colonic cells primarily use short-chain fatty acids produced by gut bacteria
• Gut bacteria produce short-chain fatty acids from fermented cellulose and hemicellulose

Fatty Acids and Lipoproteins

• Trans-fatty acids are associated with increased LDL and reduced HDL

Protein Intake and Resistance Exercise

• Resistance exercise does not oxidize a lot of protein, therefore not depleting the free AA pool

HDLs

• Nascent HDLs are small and discoidal particles
• HDLs become spherical after interacting with non-hepatic tissues
• LCAT converts cholesterol into cholesterol esters within HDL particles
• HDL particles pick up cholesterol from other lipoproteins and peripheral tissues

Alpha-Tocopherol and Alpha-Tocotrienol

• They are quenchers of free radicals
• They confer protection to cell membranes against oxidative stress
• They enhance immune function
• They improve vitamin A absorption

Iron

• Just a small amount in the body is found in non-heme enzymes
• Absorption of heme-containing iron takes place in the ileum and jejunum

Elevated Leptin Signaling in the Hypothalamus

• Causes satiety and activation of catabolism
• Causes suppression of SNS activity
• Causes satiety and reduced energy expenditure

Polypeptide Chains

• The coiling/folding of one chain and interactions of two or more peptide chains are the primary and quaternary structures of proteins, respectively

LPL Function

• Hydrolyzes triacylglycerols in chylomicrons and VLDL in the capillaries of the adipose tissue

Digestion in the Absence of Pancreatic Amylase

• Sucrose can still be digested in the duodenum

Trypsin and Chymotrypsin

• Are activated in the small intestine and work to break down peptide bonds in chyme

Bile Salts

• Released in the duodenum are not degraded and are reabsorbed through the enterohepatic circulation

Alcohol Overconsumption

• Increased lipid accumulation in the brain is a central nervous system effect

Liver, Gallbladder, and Pancreas Functions

• Production of bile, storage and release of bile, and production of zymogens

Acetaldehyde Binding

• Adducts can be formed by acetaldehyde binding to proteins, enzymes, phospholipids, and nucleotides

Elevated Hormones

• Insulin and gherlin are elevated in the post-prandial and post-absorptive periods, respectively

Folate

• Folate, along with vitamin B12, promotes the conversion of homocysteine into methionine
• Used as a supplement to prevent neural tube defects

Fatty Acids

• Lack of linoleic and linolenic fatty acids can lead to retarded growth
• 22:6 Δ ^4,7,10,13,16,19 is an w-3 fatty acid

1,25-OHD3

• It is Vitamin D3 after undergoing hydroxylations in the liver and kidney

Dietary Iodine

• Dietary iodine exists in the free and organified forms

Cellulose

• Polysaccharide of glucose found in cell walls of plants

LCAT Function

• Esterifies cholesterol moving from non-hepatic tissues into HDL

Amino Acids

• All function in protein synthesis
• Some can serve as gluconeogenic precursors
• Regulate fluid balance and acid-base balance

Chylomicrons

• Are composed of triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and apoB-48 when they enter the lacteal

Duodenum

• The acidity of chyme is neutralized by bicarbonate released in the duodenum

Vitamin C

• Broccoli and kale are rich in vitamin C, therefore collagen synthesis and quenching of free radicals can be supported by the ingestion of these foods

Reduced Circulating Calcium

• Calcitriol and parathyroid hormone increase circulating calcium

Beta Carotene

• Excess beta carotene is stored in the subcutaneous adipose tissue

EPA and DHA Intake

• Attenuates inflammation

Bile Acids

• The main fate of bile acids is reabsorption in the terminal ileum.

Bomb calorimeter

• A bomb calorimeter is used to measure the heat released by the combustion of foods

Vitamin D

• D2 and D3 require two hydroxylations to display Vitamin D activity in vivo

No Mitochondrial ALDH

• Oxidation of ethanol-derived acetate is prevented
• Amino acids that cannot be made by the adult human body are called indispensable amino acids

Dietry Iodine

• Dietary iodine exists in the free and organified forms

Metabolizable Energy

• The difference between the gross energy of consumed foods and the energy eliminated in feces and urine is metabolizable energy

Calcium

• It is the ionized form of calcium that is absorbed by enterocytes

Nonpolar and Aromatic

• Tryptophan is a nonpolar and aromatic amino acids side chain

Increased Insulinemia

• Increased insulinemia in the post-prandial period causes suppression of lipolysis

Energy Supply

• Erythrocytes rely exclusively on glucose for energy supply

Carbohydrates

• Limit dextrins have the highest number of alpha (1-4) glycosidic bonds

Catabolic Centers

• The neuropeptides CRH and NPY exert antagonistic effects on the regulation of energy homeostasis

Iron Absorption

• Vitamin C, poultry, and fish increase iron absorption by the enterocyte

Interstitial Fluid

• Accounts for the majority of the extracellular water compartment

Hydroxylases

• 25- and 1-hydroxylases indirectly regulate calcium absorption by enterocytes

Amino Acids

• Peptide bonds are formed between the carboxyl and amino ends of amino acids

Ethanol

• It is only hazardous to the organisms if converted into acetaldehyde

Thiamine

• Thiamine is important for the synthesis of NADPH

LDL

• LDL donates its cholesterol content to its peripheral tissues by undergoing endocytosis after interacting with the LDL receptor

Symptoms of Hypothyroidism

• Include cretinism. impaired protein synthesis, stunted growth and impaired body temperature, fat and carbohydrate regulation

Vitamin B12:IF Complex

• The vitamin B12:IF complex is absorbed in the ileum by receptor-mediated endocytosis

Folate Features

• Folate is used as a supplement to prevent neural tube defects
• Along with vitamin B12, it promotes the conversion of homocysteine into methionine.

1-6-Glucosidase

• The enzyme a(1-6)-glucosidase is important for digestion as it hydrolyzes glycosidic bonds adjacent to branching points in polysaccharides
• Insulin increases amino acid uptake in cells.

Fat Soluble vitamins

• Excess beta-carotene is stored in the subcutaneous adipose tissue

CHO digestion

• Cellulose is a polysaccharide of glucose found in cell walls of plants

Sugar Transporters

• SGLT1, GLUT2, and GLUT5 are sugar transporters present in enterocytes localized in the duodenum

Glucose Use

• Glucose is mostly used for energy in the adipose tissue

Adipose Tissue

• Whole-body energy expenditure is determined by BMR, TEF, and adaptive thermogenesis

Leptin Signaling

• Satiety and activation of catabolism are the effects on the hypothalamus

bomb calorimeter

• To measure the heat released by the combustion of foods.

Acetic, Butyric, and Propionic Acids

• The large intestine is the site of production

Bile Acids Fate

• Reabsorption is in the terminal part of the ileum via Enterohepatic circulation.

Cellulose

• It has ß(1-4) glycosidic bonds.

Chelators Functions

• Compounds that form complexes and impair absorption of nutrients

Glucose and Fructose

• Fructose is a monosaccharide is hydrolyzed by digestive enzymes to glucose

Absorption from enterocytes

• The active transport of calcium in the gut is mostly calcitriol-dependent

Calcitriol and parathyroid

• Calcitriol and parathyroid hormone increase circulating calcium

Ionized Calcium

• Is the ionized form of calcium that is absorbed by enterocytes

Iodine

• Iodine-induced enlargement of the thyroid gland.

Non-heme enzymes

• Just a small amount of iron in the body is found in non-heme enzymes

Heme Iron

• It is bound to the porphyrin ring in red blood cells

Alcohol Overconsumption

• Increased lipid accumulation in the brain

Acetaldehyde

• Acetaldehyde can come from acetaldehyde binding to anything

MEOS

• Metabolizes excess ethanol ingested

Alcohol

• In the absence of mitochondrial ALDH and the ethanol will not be able to be oxidized.

bomb calorimeter

• Is used to measure the heat released by the combustion of foods.

Hormones Elevated

• Insulin and ghrelin are elevated in the post-prandial period
• Neuropeptides CRH and NPY exert antagonistic effects on the regulation of energy homeostasis

LCAT functions

• Esterify cholesterol moving from non-hepatic tissues into HDL

Fatty Acids

• The -3 fatty acids Eicosapentenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic (DHA) attenuate inflammation.

What are chylomicrons composed of when they enter the lacteal?

• Triglycerides, phospholipids, cholesterol, and the protein, apoB-48

The liver

• Vitamin D3 undergoes hydroxylation in the liver and kidney.

In liver.

• Dietary choloresterol Is produced and the main site of endogenous cholesterol production

What is High Glycemic foods?

• By comparing the glycemic response of a food containing 50g of carbohydrate which with glucose for reference

Trans-fatty acids

• increase LOL and Reduce HDL

HCL

• The post-exercise anabolic window is of utmost importance

correct

• It is HCL which denatures pepsinogen in the stomach causing to denature
• Bicarbonate secreted from pancrease

Correct

• Hcp1 promotes the absorption of iron-containing porphyrin ring by enterocytes

Vitamin D3

• Vitamin D3 after undergoing hydroxylation in the liver and kidney

Celluose

• Celluose is a monosaccharide made of glucose in cellwalls

Fructuose

• Sucrass is fructose in fruit to galactose, sucrase breaks down lactose