Attributions and Locus of Control in Psychology

The tendency to over-value internal (personality-based) explanations and under-value external (situational) explanations for another person's behavior.

The tendency to attribute successful outcomes of one's own behavior to internal causes and unsuccessful outcomes to external, situational causes.

When individuals are more likely to use external, situational attributions to explain their own behavior and internal, personal attributions for others' behavior.

It leads individuals to attribute internal factors for success and external factors for failure, especially when explaining their own behavior.

External attributions emphasize situational factors when explaining behavior rather than internal or dispositional factors.

Person perception

Social perception refers to the first stages in which people process information to determine another individual's mind-set and intentions.

The Fundamental Attribution Error is the tendency to overemphasize personal characteristics and underestimate situational factors in explaining others' behavior.

Self-Serving Bias is the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to personal traits and negative outcomes to external factors.

The Actor-Observer Discrepancy is the difference in attributions between our own behavior (actor) and others' behavior (observer).

The characteristics of the individual, the perceiver's own characteristics, and the specific situation.

Our goals determine the amount and kind of information we collect about others.

Implicit personality theories are assumptions or beliefs about people, traits, and behaviors. They can serve as mental shortcuts in perception.

Internal attributions refer to explanations based on individual characteristics, while external attributions focus on situational factors.

Our self-perception can impact how we perceive others and guide our actions based on those perceptions.

Consensus, Distinctive information, Consistency

It determines the amount of effort the person will put forth in similar situations in the future.

Comparing your friend's response to a film with how other people respond.

It involves how the individual responds to a different stimulus.

It helps determine how frequently the individual's behavior can be observed with a similar stimulus but in a different situation.

Internal and External Attribution

The conclusion that a person must be very smart if they ace a test.

The covariation principle

In a rational, logical fashion

Covariation model and the three-dimensional model

Locus of control refers to whether someone believes they have control over their life events. An internal locus of control leads to active participation, while an external locus of control leads to a perception of events happening outside of one's control.

Stability of attribution refers to whether the cause is seen as lasting or changeable over time. A stable attribution can lead to low expectations for future success, impacting an individual's willingness to put forth effort in similar tasks.

Controllability refers to the extent to which a cause can be controlled. For example, the level of effort put forth is controllable, while raw talent or ability is not controllable.

Culture plays a significant role in how attributions are made. Individualist cultures value personal goals and independence, while collectivist cultures prioritize conformity, mutual support, and interdependence.

Attitude is a learned tendency to evaluate objects, persons, or issues in a particular way. It reflects our positive, negative, or ambivalent evaluations of a person, idea, or object.

The just-world hypothesis can lead individuals to blame victims for their misfortunes as they believe people get what they deserve.

Explanatory attributions focus on seeking reasons for events, while interpersonal attributions explain events based on interactions between individuals.

Individuals with an optimistic style attribute positive events to global, stable, internal causes (GSI).

Individuals with a pessimistic style attribute negative events to global, stable, internal causes (GSI).

In negative situations, people tend to attribute fault to the other person by concluding they have negative personality traits or were in a bad mood.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held and easy to self-report, while implicit attitudes are unconscious and may influence behavior without awareness.

Attitude functions, such as utilitarian, value-expressive, ego-defensive, and knowledge functions, guide how attitudes are formed and influence behavior accordingly.

Factors like social learning, personal experience, and cognitive consistency influence how attitudes are formed.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that people tend to develop a preference for things they are familiar with, impacting attitude formation through repeated exposure.

The just-world hypothesis can shape attitudes by influencing beliefs about fairness and deservingness in the world.

The mere-exposure effect is a phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them, even if they were initially neutral towards those things.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that we are aware of, while implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that can still influence our behavior.

Attitude functions determine how attitudes serve specific psychological needs such as ego-defense, value-expressive, knowledge, and utilitarian functions, which in turn influence behavior.

Factors such as personal experience, socialization, and cultural background can significantly influence how attitudes are formed and maintained.

The mere-exposure effect can lead to the development of implicit attitudes through repeated exposure to certain stimuli, which can shape individuals' unconscious preferences and biases.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held attitudes that are easy to self-report. An example from the text is individualist cultures valuing personal goals and independence.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious attitudes that influence our behavior without our awareness. They differ from explicit attitudes in that they are not consciously held or easy to report.

Attitude functions influence behavior by guiding our actions and decisions towards objects, people, or issues based on our evaluations of them.

Factors affecting attitude formation include personal experiences, social learning, culture, media influence, and cognitive dissonance.

The mere-exposure effect is a phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are familiar with. It impacts attitude formation by making people more likely to have positive attitudes towards familiar stimuli.

The Mere-Exposure Effect is a phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are familiar with, even if they were initially neutral. This effect influences attitude formation by showing that repeated exposure can lead to increased liking or positive feelings towards an object or person.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that we are aware of and can easily report. Implicit attitudes, on the other hand, are unconscious beliefs that may influence our behavior without our awareness.

Factors affecting attitude formation include personal experience, socialization, culture, media influence, and cognitive processes. These factors shape our attitudes towards objects, people, and events.

Attitude functions refer to the different purposes attitudes serve, such as instrumental, knowledge, value-expressive, ego-defensive, and social-adjustive functions. These functions help individuals to navigate their social environment and make decisions.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that we are aware of and can easily report, while implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that may influence our behavior without our awareness.

The mere-exposure effect is a phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are repeatedly exposed to, even if they are initially neutral. This effect influences attitude formation by making individuals more likely to develop positive attitudes towards familiar stimuli.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions that are deliberately formed and easy to self-report. Implicit attitudes are unconscious and automatic evaluations that occur without awareness or intentional control.

Attitudes serve different functions such as utilitarian function (gaining rewards or avoiding punishment), knowledge function (organizing and understanding the world), ego-defensive function (protecting self-esteem), and value-expressive function (expressing core values). These functions influence behavior by guiding actions and shaping responses to stimuli.

Factors like direct experience, socialization, cultural norms, media influence, and group membership can impact attitude formation. Direct experience with a stimulus, for example, can lead to attitude change based on personal interactions.

The differentiation between explicit and implicit attitudes is crucial in understanding the dual-process model of attitude formation. Explicit attitudes are consciously formed and can influence behavior intentionally, while implicit attitudes operate unconsciously and can impact behavior without awareness.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions that we are aware of and can easily report. For example, someone who explicitly believes in environmental conservation might actively participate in recycling programs and reduce their carbon footprint.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs or biases that influence our behavior without our awareness. These attitudes can affect how we perceive and interact with others, often leading to unintended discrimination or stereotyping.

Attitude functions refer to the different purposes attitudes serve, such as utilitarian function (attitudes that help us gain rewards or avoid punishment), knowledge function (attitudes that provide understanding), ego-defensive function (attitudes that protect self-esteem), and value-expressive function (attitudes that express core values).

Three factors affecting attitude formation include direct experience (e.g., a positive experience with a product shaping attitudes towards it), socialization (e.g., family and cultural influences shaping political attitudes), and persuasion (e.g., advertising campaigns influencing attitudes towards a brand).

The mere-exposure effect is the phenomenon where people develop a preference for things simply because they are familiar with them. This effect suggests that repeated exposure to stimuli can increase liking and influence attitudes towards those stimuli.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that are easily accessible. Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that may influence behavior without awareness.

Attitude functions influence behavior by guiding how individuals approach and interact with objects, people, or situations based on their attitudes.

Factors such as personal experience, socialization, culture, and media influence can impact the formation of attitudes.

The mere-exposure effect refers to the phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them. This effect can lead to more positive attitudes towards familiar stimuli.

Implicit attitudes, being unconscious beliefs, can influence behavior without individuals being aware of it. These attitudes can subtly shape responses and decisions in various situations.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that we are aware of, while implicit attitudes are unconscious, automatic evaluations that occur without awareness.

Attitude functions influence behavior by guiding how we approach and respond to different situations and stimuli.

Three factors that can affect attitude formation are personal experience, socialization, and cultural influences.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that people tend to develop a preference for things they are exposed to frequently, even if they are not consciously aware of it.

Factors that affect attitude formation include personal values, social context, emotional experiences, and cognitive processes.

The mere-exposure effect can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes through repeated exposure to stimuli, which can shape automatic evaluations.

Our self-perception influences the way we perceive others by projecting our own qualities onto them, which can impact the attributions we make about their behavior.

Attitude function influences behavior by guiding how we evaluate and respond to different stimuli, situations, or individuals.

The mere-exposure effect refers to the phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are exposed to frequently, impacting attitude formation by increasing familiarity and comfort with the stimuli.

The mere-exposure effect can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes by shaping automatic evaluations through repeated exposure to stimuli.

Factors like personal experiences, social influences, cultural norms, and emotional responses can impact attitude formation.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious attitudes that can influence behavior without the individual being aware of it.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions that individuals are aware of, while implicit attitudes are unconscious associations or evaluations that influence behavior.

Attitude function refers to the purpose attitudes serve in our lives, such as being utilitarian, value-expressive, ego-defensive, or knowledge-based. These functions can influence how attitudes guide behavior.

Some key factors include personal experiences, socialization, culture, media influence, and cognitive processes.

The mere-exposure effect is a psychological phenomenon where people tend to develop a preference for things they are exposed to frequently. This exposure can lead to the formation of positive attitudes towards those stimuli.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious attitudes that influence behavior without awareness, while explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that we are aware of.

Attitude functions serve different purposes like knowledge, instrumental, ego-defensive, and value-expressive, influencing behavior by guiding how attitudes are formed and expressed.

Factors like personal experience, socialization, culture, media influence, and cognitive dissonance can impact attitude formation.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus can increase liking or preference for that stimulus, thus impacting the formation of attitudes.

Implicit attitudes influence behavior by automatically activating associated thoughts and feelings, leading to biased responses without conscious control.

Cultural factors influence how people make attributions. Individualist cultures value personal goals and independence, while collectivist cultures value conformity and interdependence.

Internal locus of control views individuals as active participants who can influence what happens to them, while external locus of control sees the world as happening to people beyond their control.

Stability in attributions refers to whether the cause is lasting or changeable over time. It can influence how individuals perceive future tasks and their willingness to engage.

Controllability refers to the extent to which a cause can be controlled. For example, the level of effort put forth is controllable, unlike raw talent or ability.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that the more we are exposed to something, the more we tend to like it. This can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes through repeated exposure.

The self-serving bias refers to attributing successes to internal factors and failures to external factors. It differs from the fundamental attribution error in that it applies to explaining one's own behavior, not others'.

The actor-observer discrepancy refers to using situational attributions for one's own behavior and dispositional attributions for others. This difference in perspective can lead to biases in understanding behavior.

The just-world hypothesis leads individuals to believe that people get what they deserve, which can result in victim blaming when negative events occur. This bias influences attributions by favoring internal causes over external circumstances.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs or biases that affect behavior without conscious awareness. An example is implicit racial biases influencing decisions and actions.

The mere-exposure effect states that people tend to develop a preference for things they are familiar with due to repeated exposure. This effect can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes based on familiarity rather than conscious evaluation.

The mere-exposure effect describes how an individual develops positive attitudes towards something or someone simply due to repeated exposure.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious, automatic evaluations, while explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions.

Attitude functions influence behavior by guiding how attitudes are expressed and the role they play in decision-making.

Three factors that can affect attitude formation are social learning, conditioning, and the mere-exposure effect.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious evaluations that influence our behavior without conscious awareness, while explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious attitudes that influence behavior without conscious awareness. An example from the text is the self-serving bias.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that the more individuals are exposed to something, the more they tend to like it. This repeated exposure can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes.

Some key factors include personal experiences, social influences, and cultural background. These factors can shape attitudes through various mechanisms.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious evaluations that influence behavior without awareness, while explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that individuals are aware of. Both types can impact behavior in different ways.

Attitude function refers to the purpose attitudes serve in individuals' lives. For example, attitudes can serve a utilitarian function by helping individuals gain rewards or avoid punishments. These functions can shape behavior by guiding decisions and actions based on the attitude's underlying purpose.

Implicit personality theories are assumptions or beliefs about people's traits and behaviors. They act as mental shortcuts in perceiving others.

Our self-perception can impact how we perceive others and guide our actions based on those perceptions.

Social norms are expectations for appropriate behavior in social situations that influence how we evaluate and perceive others.

Attribution theory explores how individuals explain the causes of their own and others' behaviors, categorizing them as internal or external.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious beliefs that influence behavior without conscious awareness, while explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs that are easily reported.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that familiarity with a stimulus can lead to increased liking or preference for that stimulus, contributing to attitude formation.

Factors such as social influence, personal experiences, and cultural background can impact the formation of attitudes.

Individuals' goals in a specific context determine the type and amount of information they seek about others, influencing their perceptions.

The actor-observer discrepancy refers to the tendency to attribute others' behavior to internal causes while attributing our behavior to external causes.

Attribution models help individuals categorize and explain behaviors by identifying whether causes are internal or external.

Cognitive dissonance occurs when one's actions and beliefs are inconsistent, leading to discomfort. This discomfort may result in a change in behavior or beliefs to align them.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held and easy to self-report, while implicit attitudes are subconscious and may be unknown to the individual.

The utilitarian function of attitudes focuses on the practical benefits or rewards associated with holding a particular attitude. This impact can influence the formation of attitudes based on perceived usefulness.

Personal experiences can shape implicit attitudes by associating certain emotions or responses with specific stimuli, leading to the subconscious formation of attitudes.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus can lead to increased preference or positive feelings towards that stimulus. This repeated exposure can shape implicit attitudes without conscious awareness.

Explicit attitudes are deliberately formed and consciously held, while implicit attitudes are unconsciously formed and may not be aware of having.

Attitude function influences behavior by providing individuals with general tendencies on whether to approach or avoid certain people, places, or things.

Factors like personal experience, social influence, and cultural background can significantly impact attitude formation.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that repeated exposure to a stimulus can lead to a preference for that stimulus, influencing the formation of implicit attitudes.

The mere-exposure effect states that familiarity with a stimulus can lead to liking it more, impacting attitude formation.

Culture can influence attitudes by promoting individualistic or collectivistic values, affecting how people evaluate objects or issues.

Attitude function influences behavior by guiding how individuals approach objects, people, or issues based on their evaluations.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held and easy to report, while implicit attitudes are unconscious and may influence behavior unintentionally.

If an individual views the cause of their success or failure as stable, it may affect their motivation and effort in similar future tasks.

Factors like personal experience, social influence, culture, and cognitive processes can all play a role in shaping attitudes.

The Three-Dimensional Model of Attribution suggests that attributions and perceptions about success and failure determine future effort levels in similar situations.

The stability of attribution refers to whether a person believes the cause of an event is permanent or temporary, which can influence their attitude towards similar future tasks.

Attitude function refers to the purpose attitudes serve, such as utilitarian, knowledge, social-adjustive, and ego-defensive functions, which can significantly influence behavior.

Three factors that can influence attitude formation are cognitive dissonance, social learning, and self-perception.

Self-perception theory suggests that individuals infer their own attitudes by observing their behavior, which can influence how they perceive others and behave accordingly.

The mere-exposure effect describes how individuals develop positive attitudes towards something or someone simply due to repeated exposure. This phenomenon shows that familiarity breeds liking.

Attitudes serve various functions such as instrumental, knowledge-related, ego-defensive, and value-expressive. These functions can shape behavior by guiding actions that align with the attitude's purpose.

An implicit attitude could be an unconscious preference for one brand over another. This preference may lead an individual to consistently choose that brand without consciously realizing the underlying bias.

Factors like conditioning, social learning, experience, and the persuasion process can significantly impact attitude formation. These influences shape how attitudes are developed and changed over time.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held beliefs or opinions, while implicit attitudes are unconscious evaluations. Understanding how these two types of attitudes interact is crucial in comprehending the nuanced processes of attitude formation.

Explicit attitudes are consciously held and easy to self-report, while implicit attitudes are unconscious and automatic.

The mere-exposure effect suggests that the more we are exposed to something, the more we tend to like it and develop a positive attitude towards it.

Three factors that can significantly impact attitude formation are personal experiences, social influences, and cultural background.

Attitude function serves as a guide for how attitudes relate to behavior, such as influencing how people approach certain situations or make decisions.

Individuals with an optimistic explanatory style tend to attribute positive events to internal, stable, and global factors.

Implicit personality theories act as mental shortcuts in perceiving other people, but they are not always accurate.

Self-perception influences how we perceive others and how we act on those perceptions.

Social norms define rules for appropriate behavior in social situations, influencing how we evaluate people.

Implicit attitudes are unconscious and automatic, while explicit attitudes are consciously held and expressed.

Goals in a situation determine the type and amount of information collected about others.

The mere-exposure effect leads to increased liking or preference for things due to repeated exposure.

Implicit attitudes can affect how individuals behave towards others without their conscious knowledge.

Factors such as social norms, implicit attitudes, and the mere-exposure effect can impact attitude formation.

Attitude function refers to the purpose attitudes serve, influencing behavior and decision-making.

The mere-exposure effect can lead to the formation of implicit attitudes through repeated exposure to stimuli.