Grammar Fundamentals

Adverbs

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs and answer questions like When?, Where?, In what manner?, and To what extent?
• They add precision and interest to writing.
• There are three relative adverbs: 'why', 'where', and 'when', which link sentences and/or clauses together and provide additional information about the subject of a sentence.

Articles

• Articles are a type of determiner that occurs before a noun or pronoun to give more information about the noun or pronoun.
• They help to give structural information, especially in a sentence.
• The absence of both definite and indefinite articles is called zero articles.
• Articles are never stressed in general speech, but can be stressed when distinguishing them from other words.
• Articles are not applicable with non-countable nouns.
• There are two types of articles: Definite (e.g. "the") and Indefinite (e.g. "a" and "an").

Conjunctions

• Conjunctions are words that join two or more words, phrases, or clauses.
• There are three types: Coordinating (e.g. "and", "but", "or"), Correlative (e.g. "both/and", "either/or"), and Subordinating (e.g. "since", "after", "although").
• Conjunctions make writing more concise and readable when used properly.

Interjections

• Interjections are one of the eight parts of speech and convey emotion.
• They are typically related to a clause or sentence that comes before or after, but do not have a grammatical purpose in that sentence.
• Interjections serve different functions (e.g. to express a greeting, joy, sorrow, surprise, approval, or to gain attention).
• They can be classified by their purpose into three categories: volitive, emotive, cognitive, and sometimes onomatopoeia.

Homophones

• Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings.
• They can have the same or different spelling, and the reader may need to use context clues to determine their meaning.

Synonyms

• Synonyms are words that mean the exact same or almost the same thing as another word in the same language.
• They can be used interchangeably, but ensure they don't change the context.
• Synonyms can help writing be more descriptive and colorful.

Analogies

• Analogies make a parallel comparison based on a similar characteristic or feature.
• Simple analogies contain two pairs of words with similar relationships.
• In literature, there are often more complex analogies that compare parallel concepts to create vivid descriptions.

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

• A root word is the most basic form of a word.
• Prefixes are word parts added to the beginning of a word to change its meaning.
• Suffixes are word parts added to the end of a root word to change its meaning.
• A knowledge of root words, prefixes, and suffixes can help determine the meanings of unfamiliar words.

Context Clues

• Context clues are a skill used to figure out the meaning of unknown words from looking at the words around it.
• Clues can come in the form of examples, definitions, or synonyms.

Written and Spoken Language

• Written language is more formal and should follow the rules of the English language.
• Spoken language is generally less formal, and the rules are less important.
• Slang is acceptable in spoken language but not in written language.

Punctuation

• End punctuation marks include periods, question marks, and exclamation points.
• Commas are used to separate elements in a series, with adjectives and adjectival clauses, and after introductory clauses or phrases.
• Apostrophes are used to form contractions, indicate possession, and form non-possessive plurals.
• Quotation marks are used to indicate quotations and dialogue.
• Titles should be capitalized and punctuated correctly when writing.

Sentence Structure

• A sentence needs to have both a subject and a predicate to be complete.
• A subject is who or what the sentence is about, and the predicate is what the subject is or does.
• Run-on sentences occur when multiple independent clauses are joined together without proper distinction.
• Run-on sentences can be separated using four methods: separating the clauses into separate sentences, using a semicolon, using a comma and a coordinator, or using a comma and a subordinator.

Adverbs

• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or adverbs and answer questions like When?, Where?, In what manner?, and To what extent?
• Adverbs add precision and interest to writing
• There are three relative adverbs: why, where, and when, which link sentences and provide additional information about the subject of a sentence

Articles

• Articles are a type of determiner that give more information about a noun or pronoun
• Articles help with structural information in a sentence, especially with countable nouns
• There are two types of articles: Definite (The) and Indefinite (A/An)
• Definite articles refer to a specific or particular thing or person
• Indefinite articles are used before singular nouns and can be "a" or "an" depending on the noun

Conjunctions

• Conjunctions join two or more words, phrases, or clauses
• There are three types of conjunctions: Coordinating, Correlative, and Subordinating
• Coordinating conjunctions are one-word connectors like And, But, and Or
• Correlative conjunctions come in pairs like Both...and and Either...or
• Subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses and include words like Because and Unless

Interjections

• Interjections are one of the eight parts of speech and express emotion
• Interjections have their own set of rules and can be classified by purpose into categories like volitive, emotive, and cognitive
• Interjections can be primary (conveying meaning on their own) or secondary (requiring context for full understanding)
• Interjections are punctuated by an exclamation point or comma depending on the strength of emotion demonstrated

Homophones

• Homophones are words that sound the same but have different meanings
• Homophones can have the same or different spelling and require context clues to understand their meaning

Synonyms

• Synonyms are words that mean the same or almost the same thing as another word
• Synonyms can help make writing more descriptive and colorful, but context is important to ensure correct usage
• Synonyms can be found using a thesaurus

Analogies

• Analogies make parallel comparisons based on similar characteristics or features
• Analogies can be simple (two pairs of words with similar relationships) or complex (comparing parallel concepts in literature)

Root Words, Prefixes, and Suffixes

• Root words are the basic form of a word that gives it meaning
• Prefixes are word parts added to the beginning of a root word to change its meaning
• Suffixes are word parts added to the end of a root word to change its meaning
• Knowledge of root words, prefixes, and suffixes can help determine the meanings of unfamiliar words

Context Clues

• Context clues are skills used to figure out the meaning of unknown words from surrounding words or sentences
• Clues can come in the form of examples, definitions, or synonyms

Written and Spoken Language

• Written language is more formal and follows the rules of the English language
• Spoken language is generally less formal, and the rules are less important
• Slang is acceptable in spoken language but not in written language