125 Questions
According to classical criminology, why do people choose to commit crimes?
Because they believe the gains from crime outweigh the losses
According to positivist criminology, what factors did they emphasize in determining criminal behavior?
Sociological factors
Which of the following is NOT a concept emphasized by philosophers and social critics in the 1700s to explain criminal conduct?
Religious beliefs
Who were the two leading proponents of classical criminology?
Cesare Beccaria and Jeremy Bentham
What did Sir Francis Bacon argue about crime in the 17th century?
Opportunity makes a thief
According to the text, who was an early positivist theorist that studied crime data and concluded that crime occurred more often in certain geographic areas and under specific social conditions?
Adolphe Quetelet
According to the text, which theorists emphasized the physical characteristics of criminals and proposed a strong biological predisposition to crime?
Lombroso
According to the text, what did positivists believe about punishment?
Punishment should fit the criminal rather than the crime
According to the text, which of the following is NOT mentioned as a legacy of the positivist tradition in criminology?
Political ideologies
According to the text, which crimes have criminologists mostly concentrated on?
Violent acts
Which theories of crime incorporate a combination of environmental and biological factors?
Social-psychological theories
Which theories of crime stress genetic influences, neuropsychological abnormalities, and biochemical irregularities?
Biological theories
According to some psychological theories, what personality attributes may result in criminal behavior?
Pro-criminal attitudes
Which theories bridge the gap between the environmentalism of sociology and the individualism of psychological or biological theories?
Social-psychological theories
Which theories of crime propose that crime is the result of an ego and superego that are too weak to control the sexual and aggressive instincts of the id?
Psychological theories
According to structural theories of crime, what is emphasized as the cause of criminal behavior?
Inadequate schooling
According to subcultural theories of crime, what is the product of a subculture's deviation from accepted norms?
Anomie
According to Cloward and Ohlin's theory of differential opportunity, what do people in lower socioeconomic subcultures usually want to succeed through?
Legal means
According to the theory of differential opportunity, why do lower-class black youth engage in crime?
Because they have a desire to gain financial resources
According to the theory of subcultural explanations, what causes criminal behavior in gangs?
A desire to achieve the ends valued in their culture
According to Walter Miller's theory of focal concerns, what are the basic values of lower-class adolescent gangs?
Trouble, toughness, and autonomy
According to the text, what is the main concern with subcultural explanations of crime?
They do not consider cultural standards
What questions remain unanswered about cultural standards, according to the text?
All of the above
What do some critics of subcultural explanations reject, according to the text?
The assumption that different socioeconomic groups embrace different values
What is a key concern with subcultural explanations, according to the text?
The inability to explain individual behavior
According to adoption studies, men whose biological parents had a criminal record were how many times more likely to be criminal themselves?
Four times
Which enzyme, when absent, affects important neurotransmitters and has been linked to impulsive aggression?
Monoamine oxidase A (MAOA)
What is the prevalence rate of criminality among adoptees with no criminal background?
2.9%
Which brain region has been linked to the experience of negative emotions and has shown excessive activity in homicide offenders?
Amygdala
What region of the brain is responsible for planning, monitoring, and controlling behavior, and has been associated with antisocial behavior?
Prefrontal cortex
What do biological theories of crime search for?
Genetic vulnerabilities
In twin studies, how are monozygotic twins different from dizygotic twins?
Monozygotic twins have identical genetic material
What did a study of 274 adult twin pairs find about heritability of violent behaviors?
50% heritability
Do heredity and environment play a role in both property crimes and violent crimes?
Yes, but heredity has a higher influence on property crimes
What do biological theorists believe translates genetic vulnerabilities into specific criminal behavior?
Social interactions
Damage to the prefrontal cortex may lead to criminal behavior in several ways. Which of the following is NOT one of those ways?
Impaired functioning in the autonomic nervous system
Which of the following is a physiological factor that might lead to increased aggressiveness and delinquency?
Low levels of testosterone
What is one of the dimensions of personality that is related to antisocial behavior?
Empathy
What might low levels of serotonin be linked to in relation to aggressiveness and criminal conduct?
Greater impulsivity and irritability
What did one study using animal models find about rats with increased production of testosterone and lower levels of serotonin?
They exhibited more aggressive behaviors
According to psychoanalytic theories, what is the most commonly blamed factor for producing a defective ego or superego that leads to criminal behavior?
Inadequate identification by a child with his or her parents
According to psychoanalysts, why do some criminals engage in criminal behavior?
To alleviate feelings of guilt
According to other psychoanalysts, what is criminal behavior a means of obtaining substitute gratification for?
Basic needs such as love, nurturance, and attention
According to John Bowlby, what is the main cause of more intractable cases of delinquency and repetitive crime?
Parental rejection
According to Samuel Yochelson and Stanton E. Samenow, what is the fundamental difference between criminals and non-criminals?
Criminals have a fundamentally different way of thinking
According to personality-based explanations, which personality dimension is associated with being active, aggressive, and impulsive?
Extroversion
What percentage of a correctional sample could be classified as psychopathic, according to one study mentioned in the text?
25%
What is one criticism of using the PCL and revised versions of the instrument as diagnostic tools in legal decisions?
The reliance on inaccurate information
What does the evidence suggest about the effect of expert testimony about an offender's psychopathy or psychopathic traits on the severity of court's disposition?
It increases the severity
Which personality trait interferes with efficient learning and leads to greater restlessness and drive to carry out behavior of all sorts, including crimes?
High neuroticism
Which personality trait is associated with individuals who engage in frequent, repetitive criminal activity for which they feel little or no remorse?
High psychoticism
What is the closest diagnostic label to psychopathy?
Antisocial personality disorder
According to the integrated study, which factors of the Hare Psychopathy Checklists were moderately associated with increased antisocial conduct?
Both Factor 1 and Factor 2
What did the study find about the association between Checklist scores and offending in different settings?
Checklist scores were more strongly associated with offending in the community
Which theory suggests that psychopathic individuals have a deficiency in the left hemisphere of their brains that impairs executive function?
The cortical immaturity theory
According to the social labeling approach, why are some lawbreakers more likely to be caught and 'criminalized' than others?
Because they live in crime-ridden neighborhoods
What does the social labeling approach primarily explain about criminal behavior?
Secondary deviance
What is a prerequisite for secondary deviance to occur?
Developing a life of crime
What does the social labeling approach not explain about criminal behavior?
Primary deviance
What persists despite the names we call them?
Behavioral differences between people
What does the social labeling approach raise our awareness about?
Difficulties offenders face in returning to society
What are some lawbreakers more likely to be caught and 'criminalized' than others?
Those who live in crime-ridden neighborhoods
What does the social labeling approach remind us about some lawbreakers?
Difficulties offenders face in returning to society
What usually has to occur before secondary deviance takes its toll?
Developing a life of crime
What do behavioral differences between people persist despite?
The names we call them
What is the implication of the integrative model mentioned in the text?
Preventing crime is more effective than rehabilitating criminals
Why is prevention important in fighting the 'crime problem'?
To interrupt processes that lead to antisocial lifestyles
What are some of the processes that the text mentions as pathways to deviance?
Experimenting with alcohol and drugs, dwelling on violent media and subcultures, dropping out of school, failing at legitimate employment
What is the likely outcome for some individuals who are arrested and incarcerated, according to the text?
They will continue to offend throughout their lives
What is one of the reasons why preventing crime is considered more effective than rehabilitating criminals, according to the text?
Repeat offenders are resistant to attempts to suppress criminal conduct
What can treatment programs help individuals with in order to turn their lives around?
Strengthen their social skills, build better cognitive controls, model prosocial behavior, reinforce law-abiding conduct
What is the main focus of prevention programs in fighting the 'crime problem'?
Identifying at-risk youth and intervening in multiple areas to interrupt processes that lead to antisocial lifestyles
What are some of the factors that contribute to the pathways of deviance?
Hostile environments and the decisions of youth themselves
What is the likely outcome for individuals who have a protracted history of learning antisocial behavior, rejecting prosocial behavior, and facing closed doors to legitimate opportunity, according to the text?
They will not easily yield to attempts to suppress criminal conduct
What are some of the areas in which prevention programs can intervene to interrupt processes that lead to antisocial lifestyles?
Individuals, families, schools, peer groups, and neighborhoods
Which of the following is NOT a biological risk factor for criminal behavior?
High levels of empathy
Which of the following is NOT a psychological variable that may contribute to criminal behavior?
High levels of empathy
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a characteristic of crime-causing environments?
Low levels of alcohol and substance abuse
Which of the following is NOT a potential antecedent condition for repeated offending?
Social skills
Which of the following is NOT a personality trait mentioned as a vulnerability to crime?
High levels of empathy
Which of the following is NOT a factor that may contribute to the translation of biological or psychological predispositions toward criminal behavior?
High levels of empathy
Which of the following factors can contribute to aggression in children?
Genetic influence
What is a common long-term adjustment problem for youth identified as at risk in childhood?
Drug and alcohol abuse
What are some early indicators of antisocial behavior in children?
Oppositional defiant disorder
What did a long-term longitudinal study find about aggression in childhood?
It predicts violence in adulthood
What is a key factor that predicts delinquency in adolescence?
Poor school achievement
What do developmental processes depend on in terms of criminal offending?
Environmental factors
What is one factor that can contribute to an increase in criminal behavior among youth?
Poor parental monitoring and supervision
What is one possible effect of exposure to TV violence on children?
Increase in aggressive attitudes and behaviors
What is one way in which substance abuse can contribute to criminal behavior?
Increased association with deviant peers
What is one maintenance factor that can contribute to the entrenchment of violent offending?
Short-run positive payoffs for offending
What is one consequence of repeated substance abuse during adolescence?
Decreased options for prosocial behavior
What is one factor that can contribute to the compounding of developmental processes leading to criminal behavior?
Impulsive, low IQ child
According to the integrative model mentioned in the text, what is a better way of fighting the 'crime problem' than rehabilitating criminals?
Preventing crime
Why is prevention important in fighting the 'crime problem'?
To interrupt the processes that lead to antisocial behavior
What are some of the factors that contribute to the pathways of deviance?
Experimenting with alcohol and drugs, dwelling on violent media and subcultures, dropping out of school, failing at legitimate employment, and associating with other lawbreakers
What can treatment programs help individuals with in order to turn their lives around?
Strengthen their social skills, build better cognitive controls, model prosocial behavior, and reinforce law-abiding conduct
What is the likely outcome for some individuals who are arrested and incarcerated?
They will continue to offend throughout their lives
Why will some repeat offenders not yield easily to attempts to suppress criminal conduct?
Due to a protracted history of learning antisocial behavior, rejecting prosocial behavior, and facing closed doors to legitimate opportunity
What are the pathways to deviance that must be blocked early?
Experimenting with alcohol and drugs, dwelling on violent media and subcultures, dropping out of school, failing at legitimate employment, and associating with other lawbreakers
Which theory proposes that certain groups adhere to norms that conflict with the values of others in society and encourage criminal conduct?
Subcultural Version of Sociological Theory
What are the six basic values listed in Walter Miller's theory of focal concerns?
Trouble, toughness, smartness, excitement, fate, and autonomy
Which theory emphasizes chronic barriers to conventional success that certain people face, such as cultural and language differences, financial hardships, and limited access to resources crucial to upward mobility?
Structural Barriers
What does the theory of subcultural explanation propose about the criminal activities of lower-class adolescent gangs?
They are an attempt to achieve the ends valued in their culture through behaviors that appear best suited to obtain those ends
What do biological theories of crime search for?
Genetic vulnerabilities, neuropsychological abnormalities, or biochemical irregularities
What is the main implication of anomie theory?
Unlimited aspirations pressure individuals to deviate from social norms
Who is the chief proponent of the theory that most human behavior is learned through observation and modeling?
Albert Bandura
Which social contexts does the theory of modeling of aggression emphasize?
Familial influences
Which book is an example of a multiple-component learning theory?
Crime and Human Nature
According to the social labeling theory, what creates deviance?
Labels assigned by society
What is the distinction made by the social labeling theory between primary and secondary deviance?
Primary deviance is the criminal's actual behavior, while secondary deviance is society's reaction to the offensive conduct
According to the multiple-component learning theory, what determines whether a crime is committed?
The net ratio of gains and losses for criminal and noncriminal behavior
What is the main focus of the social labeling theory?
The labels that society assigns to certain acts
What are the two divisions of sociological theories of crime?
Structural and subcultural explanations
What does the theory of differential opportunity assume about people in lower socioeconomic subcultures?
They endorse conventional, middle-class goals
What is one limitation of the theory of differential opportunity?
Lower-class youth tend to show differences as early as the beginning of elementary school
What do sociological theories of crime emphasize?
The societal conditions that enable crime to thrive
What does the theory of differential opportunity suggest about people in lower socioeconomic subcultures?
They usually want to succeed through legal means
What is one outgrowth of the sequence proposed by the theory of differential opportunity?
Youthful crime, especially in gangs
Which theory emphasizes that criminals engage in a fundamentally different way of thinking than non-criminals?
Yochelson and Samenow's Theory of Criminal Thinking
According to Eysenck's Theory of Personality Dimensions, which personality dimension is associated with a higher risk for criminality?
Psychoticism
Which theory suggests that disruptions of the attachment between mother and infant or parental rejection of the developing child contribute to delinquency and repetitive crime?
Bowlby's Attachment Theory
According to Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory, what is the motive behind criminal behavior?
Compulsive need for punishment
Which theory views criminal behavior as a learned response resulting from classical conditioning, reinforcement, observation or modeling, and social labeling?
Learning Theories
According to Control Theories, what is the main factor that prevents people from behaving antisocially?
External containment
Test your knowledge on the historical concepts of crime and its explanations. Explore the religious views in ancient times, the influence of poverty on crime according to Aristotle, and the role of opportunity as discussed by Sir Francis Bacon in the 17th century. Challenge yourself with this insightful quiz on the various theories surrounding the nature of crime throughout history.
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