Unit 1: Foundations of Western Civilization

Unit 1: Foundations of Western Civilization

• Importance of History: Understanding the past allows us to avoid repeating mistakes, comprehend the present, and anticipate the future. It fosters critical and analytical thinking.
• Types of Historical Sources:
  • Primary Sources: Original documents, artifacts, ruins, battlefields, remains.
  • Secondary Sources: Books, encyclopedias, biographies, movies about a historical period.
• Problems with Sources: Sources can be biased, incomplete, inaccurate, outdated, or created for a specific purpose.
• Characteristics of a Civilization: Large, organized government, social classes, written language, and a codified legal system.
• Major Periods of Western History: Ancient, Medieval, Modern.
• Missing Links & Problems:
  • Neanderthal: Extinct human type.
  • Java Man: Mixture of human/animal bones.
  • Piltdown Man: Hoax; chemically treated bones.
  • Australopithecus: Extinct ape type.
• Dating Methods & Problems:
  • Carbon-14: Organic decay rate affected by environmental factors
  • Tree Rings: Distorted by rain and drought
  • Potassium-Argon: Affected by tectonic activity or gas leakage
  • King Lists: Fabricated or exaggerated accounts.
• Evidence for a Universal Flood: Fossils of marine life on mountains, widespread fossil plant and animal remains, flood myths from various cultures, sedimentary rock layers.
• Paleolithic vs. Neolithic Cultures: Paleolithic focused on hunting & gathering; Neolithic focused on farming & herding.
• Fertile Crescent: Origin of civilizations.
• Oldest Known Civilization: Sumer.
• Similarities Between Mesopotamia & Egypt: Dependence on rivers, agriculture, and annual floods.
• Stages of Sumerian Writing: Pictographs, imagery, photographs(drawings).
• Sumerian Priest Rule: Priests were seen as representatives of the gods.
• Sumerian Religion: Naturalistic, polytheistic, and humanistic.
• Babylonian Adoption of Sumerian Religion: Gods remain even after changes in local leadership.
• Hammurabi's Law Code: “An eye for an eye” principle.
• Dowry: Wealth or money provided in a marriage contract by the bride's family.
• Egyptian Dependence on the Nile: Water, fertile land, building materials, and transportation.
• Divisions of Egyptian History: Old, Middle, New Kingdoms.
• Purpose of Pyramids: Pharaohs' burial places.
• Pharaoh as God: Pharaohs became Osiris in the afterlife.
• Mummification: Preserving the body for the afterlife (Ka).
• Pharaoh Marriage: Marriage to siblings to maintain divine lineage.
• End of Middle Kingdom: Hyksos invasions.
• Akhenaton's Impact: Religious change.
• Significance of King Tut: Tomb discovered intact in the 20th century.
• Rosetta Stone: Deciphering hieroglyphs.

Unit 2: Early Civilizations of the Middle East

• Hittite Invention: Chariots and Iron workings
• Reintroducing Iron: Hittites re-introduced iron after a long period of copper and bronze tools
• Hittites relation to the body References to physical body and internal organs are limited up until late 19th century
• Hittite-Egyptian Conflicts: The sea peoples invaded and weakened the cooperation of the region
• Phoenician Commerce: Sea trade and establishment of ports
• Phoenician Contributions: Alphabet, navigation, and trade.
• God's Choice of Abraham: Abraham's faith.
• God's Promises to Abraham: Offspring, land, great name, and blessing to the world.
• Israelite Wilderness Wandering: Punishment of an unfaithful generation.
• Desire for a King: Israelites sought a king to unite them.
• Israel's First King: Saul.
• Solomon's Mistakes: Foreign wives and idolatry.
• Consequences of Solomon's Sin: Loss of the northern kingdom.
• David and Solomon's Principles: Faithfulness, consequences of sin, affecting future generations.
• Assyrian Captivity Control: Deportaion and integration of captives.
• Assyrian Weakening of Nationalism: Deportation and forced cultural mixing.
• God's Protection of Jerusalem: Hezekiah's repentance.
• Battle of Carchemish: Assyrian empire ended by Chaldeans.
• Judah's Fall to Chaldeans: Hebrew unfaithfulness
• Hanging Gardens: Built for Nebuchadnezzar's wife.
• Fall of Babylon: Conquered by the Persians.
• Cyrus's Success: Popular uprising/ lack of support for Astyages and support of Harpagus. Cyrus reputation and policies.
• Persian Law: A law in action; unchanged by the King
• Persian Communication: Fast messenger systems.
• Persian Success with Conquests: More lenient rule than Assyrians/Chaldeans.
• Zoroastrian Creator God: Ahura Mazda.
• Zoroaster's Teachings: Individual responsibility for choice between good and evil.

Unit 3: Ancient Greece

• Schliemann & Evans's Significance: Dated European history further back; proved Greek myths based on facts.
• Minoan Wealth: Sea trade.
• Minoan Decline: Mycenaean warfare; earthquake; volcanic eruption.
• Mycenaean Characteristics: Warlike culture; war themes in art, cities walled.
• Trojan War Causes: Possible reasons including trade disputes, kidnapping, and pride from one side or another.
• Forms of Greek Government: Limited monarchy, oligarchy, tyranny, democracy.
• Greek Colonization: Overpopulation, lack of resources, food shortages.
• Aristocrat Use of Colonies: Banishing political opponents.
• Greek Nation Unity Hindrance: Mountains, city-state loyalty.
• Solon's Reforms: Debt relief, protection of peasants, new skills.
• Oratory in Greek Democracy: Persuading voters.
• Sparta's Militarism: Maintaining control over numerous helots.
• Athenian Education: Well-rounded development.
• Darius's Attack on Greece: Revenge and control of trade.
• Battle of Marathon: Athenian victory; self-confidence boost.
• Delian League: Protection (transformed into Athenian Empire).
• Pericles' Funeral Oration: Motivating Athenians to resist Sparta.
• Athenian Weakness in Peloponnesian War: Plague, battle losses, Spartan support.
• Peloponnesian War's Impact on Democracy: Democracy blamed for the war.
• Athenian Golden Age Culture: Wealth, talented individuals, Pericles' promotion.
• Greek Tragedy Themes: Suffering, hubris, flaws, fate, natural laws.
• Fables: Teaching morals.
• Greek Belief about Heavenly Bodies: Governed by natural laws.
• Sophists: Philosophy to gain wealth/power.
• Socratic Method: Questioning to find truth.
• Plato's Ideal Government: Philosopher king.
• Aristotle's Knowledge: Study, analysis, classification.

Unit 4: Alexander the Great and Hellenistic World

• League of Corinth: Invasion of Persia.
• Alexander's Victories: Darius's retreat and lack of resistance.
• Alexander's Mediterranean Strategy: Protection from Persian invasions.
• Ezekiel's Prophecy: Destruction of Tyre.
• Alexander's Domestic Problems: Homesickness, adoption of Persian ways, overextension.
• Hellenizing Strategy: Intermarriage, model cities (Alexandria).
• Alexander's Impact on the World: Spreading Greek language(preparation for Christianity).
• Hellenistic Kingdom Decline: Hiring foreign soldiers.
• Greek Religious Cults in East: Sense of belonging, rituals over strictness.
• Stoicism and Epicureanism Similarities: Internal source of human suffering.

Unit 5: Roman Republic

• Italian Location Advantages: Protection, resources, central Mediterranean.
• Consul Restrictions: Two consuls, yearly terms, 20-year gap between terms.
• Roman Senate Duties: Advisory body.
• Compliance with Senate: Senators' future potential.
• Early Roman Classes: Patricians (originally ruling class) & Plebeians (commoners).
• Plebeian Political Gain: Need for manpower, strikes & revolt.
• Tribune's Role: Protection of Plebeians' rights.
• Roman Law Types: Civil, natural, and popular law.
• Italy's Cooperation with Rome: Benefits of citizenship.
• Punic Wars Opponent: Carthage.
• First Punic War Cause: Conflicting interests in Sicily.
• First Punic War Outcome: Roman navy dominance.
• Second Punic War Causes: Resentment, hatred led by Hannibal.
• Hannibal's Strategy Failure: Supply shortages, lack of Italian allies, strategic mistakes.
• Scipio's Strategy: Attacking Carthage, drawing Hannibal back.
• Roman Expansion East: Response to allies being attacked.
• Greek Influence on Rome: Contact with Greek colonies.
• Plebeian Farmer Problems: Destruction, debt, competition from large estates, grain imports.
• Politician Exploitation of Plebeians: Free food and entertainments for votes.
• Tiberius Gracchus's Actions: Land reform for plebeians.
• Significanc of Gracchus Bros: Republic failure, violence for political gains.
• Marius's Army Issue: Loyalty to generals, not Rome.
• Caesar's Threat: Hero image, challenges to republic.
• Caesar's Achievements: Calendar, public works, benefits to farmers.
• Caesar's Assassination Motives: Saving the republic, resentment, fear of kingship.
• Octavian's Actions: Playing Senate against Antony.

Unit 6: Roman Empire

• Octavian's Titles: Princeps, Augustus, Caesar, Imperator.
• Octavian's Achievements: Roman law/ citizenship expansion, public works/ infrastructure, established bureaucracy.
• Octavian's "Republic Restoration": Preserving senate power.
• Roman Writers: Glorification of Rome and its history.
• Emperor Tiberius's Characterization: Negative traits, paranoia, restriction.
• Caligula & Nero's Failures: Abuses of power, bad judgment.
• Zealots: Jewish resistance against Romans.
• Jerusalem in 70 AD: Destruction for resistance.
• Succession Under "Good Emperors": Adoption, not heredity, for selection.
• Roman Entertainment: Chariots, races, gladiators, games.
• Pax Romana's Language: Latin.
• Romance Languages: Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, Romanian.
• Christianity's Spread: Universal language, positive Christian character, Evangelism; travel, lack of appeal in other religions.
• Persecution of Christians: Religious differences, defiance of Roman cults, rumors.
• Early Christian Rumors: Cannibalism, atheism, immorality, other attacks.