Unification of Italy

Unification of Italy

• The Italian peninsula was politically fragmented.
• Revolutionary France invaded the Italian peninsula in 1792.
• Revolutionary France combined many of the Italian states and established them as republics.
• Austrian and Russian armies pushed the French out of the Italian peninsula in 1799.

French Occupation

• The French Occupation initiated revolutionary ideas and ended the last traces of feudalism.
• The French Occupation introduced ideals of freedom and equality and the idea of nationalism.

Concept of a United Italy

• Secret societies formed to oppose the conservative regimes that existed in Italy.
• These societies promoted Italian nationalism and the idea of one unified Italian political state.

Young Italy

• Young Italy was a society founded by Giuseppe Mazzini.
• Mazzini promoted Italian unification, also known as the Risorgimento (resurgence).
• The movement for Italian unification flourished by mid-century.

Mazzini's Influence

• Mazzini greatly influenced Italian and European republican movements.
• He became a God-like figure for the people.
• Mazzini was disappointed when Italy was declared a kingdom.

Revolutions of 1848

• 1848 was a year of revolutions that spread all over Europe and ignited nationalist sentiment.
• Italian cities such as Lombardy-Venetia and Milan tried to rise up against Austrian rule.
• Piedmont-Sardinia sent troops to help, but the revolt was eventually crushed by the Austrians.

Final Push for Unification

• 1859 was the year of the final push for Italian unification.
• The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia led the unification effort.
• Piedmont-Sardinia was the strongest and most liberal state in Italy.
• The program for unification was prepared by Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour, who was a skilled diplomat.

Franco-Austrian War

• The Franco-Austrian War took place in 1859.
• Cavour secured an alliance with France against Austria.
• The Battle of Solferino was the last battle of the War of Italian Independence.
• Austria was defeated in the Franco-Austrian War.

Joining of States

• The northern Italian states joined Piedmont-Sardinia.
• The southern states joined thanks to the efforts of Giuseppe Garibaldi.
• Garibaldi was the leader of the Hunters of the Alps and the "Thousand".
• In 1860, Garibaldi landed in Sicily and moved north to Naples.
• In 1861, the Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed, with Victor Emmanuel II as its king.

Remaining regions

• In 1861 Rome and Venetia were the two major regions still outside the Kingdom of Italy.
• Venetia joined in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War.
• In 1870, the Italian army entered Rome.
• In 1871, the capital was moved from Florence to Rome.

Garibaldi

• Garibaldi became an international model for independence and republican ideals.
• Garibaldi inspired figures like Nehru and Che Guevara.
• His "Red Shirts" volunteers would later be copied by Mussolini and Hitler.

Unification of Germany

• The unification of Germany was a revolution in international relations.
• It radically changed the European balance of power.

1815

• Napoleon was defeated and exiled in 1815.
• European powers broke down the French Empire.
• These powers agreed that no country should possess disproportionate power

German Confederation

• After Napoleon's defeat, new borders were drawn, and powers created the German Confederation.
• The German Confederation consisted of 39 German states.
• Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states.

Austria

• Austria was historically the strongest among the German states
• The Emperor of Austria was known as the Holy Roman Emperor.
• Theoretically, the Emperor ruled over the German Confederation.

Prussia vs Austria

• Prussia eventually became Austria's formidable challenger/enemy.
• The duality between the two would become a major factor in slowing down German unification.

German Unification

• German unification became a reality in 1871.
• This event was a major diplomatic and political achievement led by Otto von Bismarck.

Otto von Bismarck

• Otto Von Bismarck was a political genius who controlled and charmed supporters and opponents alike.
• The unification of Germany changed the balance of power and shaped an aggressive Germany.
• The unification stimulated the formation of powerful France, Britain, and Russia and resulted in US involvement in Europe.

European Powers

• European powers worried about a united Germany and knew it would grow into a strong adversary.
• German intellectuals pursued unification and spread the idea of Volksgeist.

Frankfurt Assembly

• In 1848, German intellectuals called a non-governmental meeting at Frankfurt.
• This meeting aimed to discuss the possibility of unification.
• Delegates from all German states participated in the Frankfurt Assembly.
• The Assembly faced two viewpoints: Greater Germany (including Austria) and Smaller Germany (without Austria).
• The meeting failed because of the polarity between Austria and Prussia.

Austria's Rejection

• Austria rejected Greater Germany; it had non-German states under its control,
• Hungary was Austria's most important ally.

Militarism

• States following Militarism aimed to maintain a strong military force and be prepared to use it aggressively.
• Militarism became the key strategy of German States.

Prussia Leadership

• Prussia gradually assumed leadership of all German States.
• Prussia started a Customs Union called Zollverein, a coalition of German states.
• Zollverein manages tariffs and economic policies within their territories.
• Zollverein eliminated the problems of border crossings, unified custom duties, established one currency system and enforced the same weights and measurements.
• Zollverein also resulted in better interaction among Germans and facilitated building railway lines in 1829.
• Germans got closer without political pressure, making unification more acceptable and advantageous.

Prussia's Political System

• Prussia's political system consisted of a Kaiser from the Hohenzollern dynasty.
• A Chancellor was appointed by the Kaiser.
• There was a Diet/Parliament with two chambers: an Upper chamber appointed from Junkers, and a Lower chamber elected.

Junkers

• The Junkers were the landowning aristocracy of Prussia and Eastern Germany and exercised extensive political power.
• They were an important part of the Prussian military, political & diplomatic leadership and the majority of army officers were Junkers.
• In Prussia, the STATE served the army.

Power Struggle in Prussia and Bismarck's Appointment

• The Prussian military needed financing for improvements, leading to a power struggle in the DIET.
• Industrialists agreed to finance the program but asked to share in the decisions.
• Junkers had the power but refused any interference.
• The power struggle continued nonstop until the Cabinet resigned, and Kaiser appointed BISMARCK as the new chancellor of Prussia.

Bismarck's Priorities

• Kaiser William I delivered all power/authority to Bismarck.
• Bismarck bypassed/ignored all officials and set his priorities as his own career and the greatness of Prussia.

Bismarck's Characteristics

• Bismarck was Prussian more than German.
• He aimed at uniting all Germans under Prussian hegemony.
• Bismarck was a man of peace & negotiations and would only go to war if necessary and after exhausting diplomacy.
• He was an extraordinary politician & diplomat and a man of Realpolitik/Pragmatism believing that the end justifies the means and played contradictions of German politics to his own advantage.

Prussia's Military and Bismarck's Support

• Bismarck was aware the army was Prussia's strongest advantage.
• He exploited the hostility between chambers of parliament and fully supported the military.
• Parliament declared his actions unconstitutional.
• "Constitutions move a nation forward. Germans admire Prussia’s military. Great questions of the day are solved by Blood & Iron.”

Bismarck's Strategy for Unification

• Bismarck appeased European Powers to guarantee their neutrality in war.
• He backed France in the Italian wars of independence.
• Austria had an ineffective, rundown military and was an enemy of France in the Italian war according to Bismarck.

Relations with Russia and England

• Bismarck supported Russia against Polish rebels.
• He exploited the troubled relations between Austria and Russia, as Austria had supported Ottomans against Russia In the Russo-Turkish War 1828-1829.
• Austria was caught between Napoleonic France and angry Russia.
• England always preferred her isolation.

Role of Friend and Protector

• Bismarck played the role of FRIEND & PROTECTOR toward other German states and waited to claim Austria to be the AGGRESSOR.
• His chance came over the issue of Schleswig & Holstein.

Schleswig and Holstein Crisis

• Schleswig-Holstein refers to two states in the German Confederation
• In 1864 the King of Denmark annexed both states.
• The German Confederation commissioned Austria and Prussia to free both.
• In the German-Danish War of 1864 Denmark was defeated.
• Austria & Prussia jointly administer the two states.

Bismarck's Manipulation of Austria and Provocation

• Bismarck convinced Austria to take Schleswig in the North and Prussia took Holstein in the South.
• Bismarck cleverly provoked Austria into declaring war as they wrongly expected victory believing they had the backing of other German States and the major European powers.

Austria Isolated and The South German States

• Austria was wrong and sent complaints to the German Confederation but got NO REACTION.
• Austria was left on her own to face the formidable Prussian army.
• South German States remained neutral because Bismarck guaranteed they would not be involved in the war.

Bismarck Winning Allies

• Bismarck stated those would be welcomed in a new GERMAN CONFEDERATION and promised democratic reforms in case of Prussian victory.
• In the Seven Weeks War Austria was defeated in record time losing 44,000 people while Prussia lost 9000 people in total
• Bismarck did NOT create the Schleswig-Holstein crisis but fully exploited it.

The North German Confederation

• Austrian defeat resulted in the formation of: North German Confederation
• The Confederation included 21 states in 1866 which became led by leader Prussia but without Austria & Southern States

The Kaiser

• The new constitution created Kaiser of Prussia as President.
• Parliament contained two chambers:, the Upper chamber represented the States, and the Lower chamber elected through universal male suffrage.

Universal Male suffrage

• Universal male suffrage gave Bismarck public support.
• 25 million Germans were now under Prussia but unification still incomplete because it did not include the South German States

Napoleon III

• Emperor of France Napoleon III fixated on those states aware that war against France would result in NO chance of winning.
• Bismarck exploited their fears and played the role of FRIEND and PROTECTOR Napoleon III gave Bismarck another GOLDEN opportunity to win these Southern countries over

Bismarck and Europe

• Napoleon, anxious about the German Confederation requested compensations for his neutrality.
• Napoleon asked Bismarck to enable French annexation of parts of Belgium & Luxembourg.
• The agreement was supposedly TOP SECRET however Bismarck circulated Napoleon's request and called it their”SHOPPER'S LIST” Bismarck knew It would alarm Southern States and Embarrass Napoleon with other European states.

Neutralizing Europe

• Napoleon's request caused great anxiety, leaving him with no allies.
• British policy was against military engagements in Europe as Russia already previously neutralized.
• The South German States knew in case of FRENCH attack PRUSSIA was their ONLY hope which allowed Bismarck to win this battle by DIPLOMACY.

War with France

• To persuade South States to join the unification of Germany
• Bismarck needed war with France, thus FRANCE should act first to be seen as the aggressor
• In this case PRUSSIA would be regarded as South States' only hope, so Bismarck pushed Napoleon III to declare war.

Spanish Throne Issue

• The opportunity to cause a war with France became a reality with the SPANISH THRONE takeover
• In 1868 with the ‘Glorious Revolution’ in Spain, Queen Isabella II was deposed
• Spain offered the throne to LEOPOLD a member of the PRUSSIAN Hohenzollern Dynasty
• Although the KASIER declined the offer and the opportunity could have ended there but then NAPOLEON became anxious.

Anxious Kaiser

• Emperor Napoleon demanded guarantee from Kaiser to say no Hohenzollern will EVER be candidate for Spanish throne.
• KAISER declined to give one.

The Ems Dispatch

• When The French ambassador visited Kaiser that his retreat at EMS< Kaiser refused to commit Prussia to an INDEFINITE future.
• The two departed “calmly” without incident, however BISMARCK was in Berlin (596 km from Ems)
• KAISER sent Bismarck a message/dispatch about the encounter
• BISMARCK released an EDITED version of the message to the press which became known as:” EMS DISPATCH”

Results of the EMS Dispatch release

• In Bismarck’s edited version it appeared that:
• BOTH parties were insulting each other with FRANCE by their REQUEST and KAISER by his REFUSAL
• Improper translation got people furious
• FRENCH demanded retribution and GERMAN reaction was equally intense: EXACTLY WHAT BISMARCK WANTED

France Declares War

• FRANCE declares war.
• The BATTLE SEDAN 1870 a record swift with Prussia winning a decisive victory.
• The French lost 17,000 while the Prussians lost 2,320
• NAPOLEON was taken prisoner with the 21,000 French soldiers and exiled to England

March on Paris

• The fighting continued as PRUSSIANS marched on Paris laying siege to the city for 4 months.
• French defended HEROICALLY until January 1870 when FRENCH finally negotiated for peace.
• Through all of this Bismarck NEVER lost focus
• France NOT on his agenda. HIS AIM WAS UNIFICATION of Germans under Prussian control
• South German States FINALLY became part of this structure

Frankfurt Peace Treaty

• The Frankfurt Peace Treaty was signed in 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles causing more insult and injury.
• Bismarck declared the 2nd Reich with Kaiser William as King though AUSTRIA still remained outside with the terms that

Terms of German Treaty 1871

• FRANCE to become a Republic
• FRANCE pay a large war indemnity
• PRUSSIAN army to remain on borders until amount is settled
• ALSACE-LORRAINE to Germany Prussia
• This became more problematic in that Alsace-Lorraine was Valuable to France on both ECONOMIC & NATIONAL on both levels.

Conclusion of German Unification

• Bismarck took his chances and won
• GERMANS united under the Hohenzollern Dynasty of Prussia
• GERMAN life was standardized on the Prussian Model
• JUNKERS remained the principle Power group
• Due to the political complexity which required: RealPolitik, Bismarck gained him the nickname IRON CHANCELLOR maintaining EUROPEAN PEACE
• His SHREWD politics maintained PEACE IN EUROPE

Dismissal of Bismarck

• WILLIAM II opposed Bismarck on ALL issues and in 1890 dismissed Bismarck
• WILLIAM’S ambition was to make Germany a world power and disrupted the Established balance of European order

William replacing Bismarck

• BISMARCK had become an ICON, the all-wise, all-knowing statesman The Iron Chancellor embodied and manifested the GREATNESS of Germany.
• With his dismissal the institutions and politics ceased to work
• The young Kaiser William II wanted to enjoy 'personal rule' and Found a group of dedicated flatterers who encouraged his MEGALOMANIA
• WILLIAM’S foreign policy A aimed at super Military Power but failed to understand that Bismarck Carefully manipulated international rivalries and Only used MILITARY force only as a LAST RESORT
• WILLIAM 11 REVERSED Bismarck’s policy of diplomacy, His expansionist policy alarmed all European powers and triggered an ARMS RACE with Britain
• Germany Competed in the colonies prompting FRENCH-BRITISH to set-up an alliance against him

Post Bismarck

• Eventually his actions led to eventually his actions led to WWI
• By 1918 William FORCED to abdicate
• His abdication ENDED the German Empire.
• Germany was proclaimed as the WEIMER REPUBLIC and this Challenged Europe and the World.
• Its military power became a THREAT as Germans FLAUNTED with pride causing high ANXIETY.
• The result eventually led to WWI

Explore the historical events leading to the unification of Italy, beginning with the political fragmentation of the Italian peninsula and the impact of the French Revolution. Learn about the rise of secret societies and the influence of Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy movement in promoting Italian nationalism and the Risorgimento.