Unification of Italy and Young Italy

Unification of Italy

• The Italian peninsula was politically fragmented.
• Revolutionary France invaded in 1792 and combined many Italian states, establishing them as republics.
• Austrian and Russian armies pushed the French out of the Italian peninsula in 1799.
• The French occupation initiated revolutionary ideas and ended feudalism's last traces.
• Ideals of freedom, equality, and nationalism were introduced.
• The concept of a united Italy took root.
• Secret societies formed to oppose conservative regimes.
• Italian nationalism and the idea of one unified Italian political state were promoted.

Young Italy and Mazzini

• Giuseppe Mazzini founded the society "Young Italy".
• Mazzini promoted Italian unification, also known as Risorgimento (resurgence).
• Risorgimento flourished by mid-century.
• Mazzini greatly influenced Italian and European republican movements.
• He became a revered figure but was disappointed when Italy was declared a kingdom.

Revolutions of 1848 and the Final Push

• The year 1848 was marked by revolutions spreading across Europe, igniting nationalist sentiment.
• Italian cities like Lombardy-Venetia and Milan tried to rise against Austrian rule.
• Piedmont-Sardinia sent troops to help, but the revolt got crushed by the Austrians.
• The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia led the final push for unification in 1859
• Piedmont-Sardinia was the strongest and most liberal state.
• Prime Minister Count Camillo di Cavour, a skilled diplomat, prepared a unification program.

Franco-Austrian War and Key Figures in Italian Unification

• Cavour secured an alliance with France against Austria.
• The Battle of Solferino was the last battle of the War of Italian Independence.
• Austria was defeated in the Franco-Austrian War of 1859.
• Northern states joined Piedmont-Sardinia.
• Southern states joined because of Giuseppe Garibaldi's efforts.
• Garibaldi led the Hunters of the Alps and the "Thousand."
• Garibaldi landed in Sicily in 1860 and moved north to Naples.
• The Kingdom of Italy was proclaimed in 1861, with Victor Emmanuel II as king.

Completion of Italian Unification

• Rome and Venetia were major regions still outside the Kingdom of Italy.
• Venetia joined in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War.
• The Italian army entered Rome in 1870, taking advantage of the war.
• In 1871, the capital moved from Florence to Rome.
• Garibaldi became an international model for independence and republican ideals.
• Nehru and Che Guevara were inspired by Garibaldi.
• Garibaldi's "Red Shirts" volunteers were later copied by Mussolini and Hitler.

Unification of Germany and its Impact

• The unification of Germany caused a revolution in international relations.
• Radically shifted the European balance of power.
• Napoleon was defeated and exiled in 1815.
• European powers broke down the French Empire.
• There was an agreement that no country should possess disproportionate power.
• New borders were drawn.
• Powers created the German Confederation, consisting of 39 German states.
• Austria and Prussia were the most powerful German states.

Austria and Prussia

• Austria was historically the strongest German state.
• The Emperor of Austria was known as the Holy Roman Emperor.
• Theoretically, the Emperor ruled over the German Confederation.
• Prussia eventually became Austria's formidable challenger/enemy.
• Duality between Austria and Prussia slowed German unification.
• German unification became a reality in 1871.
• Otto von Bismarck is credited as instrumental in German unification, due to his diplomatic and political skills.

Impact of German Unification and the Volksgeist

• German unification changed the balance of power in Europe.
• It shaped an aggressive Germany.
• It stimulated the formation of powerful France, Britain, and Russia.
• The unification resulted in USA involvement in Europe.
• European powers were anxious about a united Germany and aware it would be a strong adversary.
• German intellectuals pursued unification and spread the idea of Volksgeist.

Frankfurt Assembly and Austria's Rejection

• In 1848, German intellectuals called a non-governmental meeting in Frankfurt to discuss the possibility of unification.
• Delegates from all German states participated in the Frankfurt Assembly.
• The Frankfurt Assembly faced two viewpoints: Greater Germany (including Austria) and Smaller Germany (without Austria).
• The meeting failed because of the polarity between Austria and Prussia.
• Austria rejected Greater Germany because it had non-German states and its ally was Hungary.

Militarism and Prussia's Leadership

• Militarism became the key strategy of the German states.
• States maintained a strong military force and were prepared to use it aggressively.
• Prussia gradually assumed leadership of all German states.
• Prussia started a Customs Union called Zollverein.
• Zollverein was a coalition of German states that managed tariffs and economic policies within their territories

Zollverein's Impact

• Zollverein eliminated problems of border crossings, unified custom duties, created one currency system, and standardized weights and measurements.
• It resulted in better interaction among Germans.
• Zollverein facilitated building railway lines in 1829.
• Germans got closer without political pressure.
• Unification was more acceptable and advantageous.

Prussian Political System

• Prussia's political system consisted of:
  • Kaiser from the Hohenzollern dynasty
  • Chancellor: prime minister appointed by the Kaiser
  • Diet/Parliament with two chambers
    • Upper chamber appointed from Junkers landed aristocracy
    • Lower chamber elected
• Junkers were the landowning aristocracy of Prussia and Eastern Germany.
• They exercised extensive political power and were an essential part of Prussian military, political, and diplomatic leadership.
• The majority of army officers were Junkers.
• Prussia's prestige was based on the strength of its army, and the Prussian state served the army.

Power Struggle Between Industrialists and Junkers

• The Prussian military needed financing for improvements.
• A power struggle ensued within the DIET.
• Industrialists had the money and agreed to finance the program but wanted to share decisions.
• Junkers had the power but refused any interference.
• Kaiser appointed Bismarck as the new chancellor of Prussia when the Cabinet resigned.

Bismarck's Priorities and Strategies

• Kaiser William I delivered all power/authority to Bismarck.
• Bismarck bypassed/ignored all officials.
• His priorities were:
  • his own career
  • the greatness of Prussia
• Bismarck was more Prussian than German.
• While he aimed at uniting all Germans under Prussian hegemony, he was a man of peace and negotiations.
• He would only go to war if necessary and after exhausting diplomacy.
• Bismarck was an extraordinary politician and diplomat and a man of Realpolitik/Pragmatism.

Bismarck's Realpolitik and Support for the Military

• Bismarck operated without ideology, morals, or ethics, believing that the end justifies the means.
• He exploited contradictions in German politics to his advantage.
• Bismarck was aware that the army was Prussia's strongest advantage.
• He exploited the hostility between the chambers of parliament.
• Parliament declared that his actions, because he fully supported the military, were unconstitutional.
• Bismarck said that constitutions should move a nation forward and that great questions are not solved by votes or speeches but by blood & iron.

Bismarck's Approach to Unification

• Bismarck appeased European powers, guaranteeing their neutrality in war.
• He backed France in the Italian wars of independence.
• Austria had an ineffective, rundown military and was an enemy of France in the Italian war.
• He supported Russia against Polish rebels and exploited the troubled relations between Austria and Russia.
• Austria had supported the Ottomans against Russia in the Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829).
• Austria was caught between Napoleonic France and an angry Russia, while England preferred isolation.

German States and the Schleswig & Holstein Issue

• Bismarck played the role of friend & protector to the German states.
• He waited for the opportunity to portray Austria as the aggressor.
• His chance came over the Schleswig & Holstein issue.
• Schleswig-Holstein were two states in the German Confederation.
• In 1864, the King of Denmark annexed both states.
• The German Confederation commissioned Austria and Prussia to free both.

German-Danish War and Bismarck's Provocation of Austria

• The German-Danish War of 1864 resulted in Denmark's defeat.
• Austria & Prussia were authorized to jointly administer the two states.
• Bismarck convinced Austria to take Schleswig in the North while Prussia took Holstein in the South.
• Bismarck cleverly provoked Austria into declaring war.
• Austria wrongly expected victory given that German states in general were anxious about Prussia’s rising power, the South German States were her allies, and that European Powers were allies too.

Austria's Isolation and Defeat

• Austria was wrong on all counts and received no reaction to it's complaints to the German Confederation.
• Austria was left on its own to face the formidable Prussian army.
• South German States remained neutral because Bismarck guaranteed that war would not involve them and promised democratic reforms and that they would be welcomed into a new German Confederation in case of Prussian victory.
• In the Seven Weeks War, Austria was defeated in record time, losing 44,000 while Prussia lost 9,000.
• Bismarck did not create the Schleswig-Holstein crisis but was able to exploit it to perfection.

North German Confederation and New Constitution

• The Austrian defeat resulted in the formation of the North German Confederation.
• In 1866, 21 states came under the leadership of Prussia, without Austria & Southern States.
• The New Constitution held that:
• the Kaiser of Prussia was President
  • there was a Parliament with two chambers
    • Upper chamber: Represents the States
    • Lower Chamber: Elected by universal male suffrage
• Universal male suffrage gave Bismarck public support and put 25 million Germans under Prussia.
• Unification was still incomplete.
• South German States were not included.

Role of Napoleon III and Bismarck's Exploitation

• Emperor of France Napoleon III had his eye on the South German states.
• The South German States were aware that they stood no chance against France in case of war.
• Bismarck exploited their fears and played the role of friend and protector.
• Napoleon III gave Bismarck another golden opportunity when he requested compensations for his neutrality and asked Bismarck to enable French annexation of parts of Belgium & Luxembourg.
• Bismarck circulated Napoleon’s request, calling it a "Shopper's List".
• It alarmed Southern States and embarrassed Napoleon with other European states.

Napoleon’s Request and Bismarck’s Use of Diplomacy

• Napoleon's request created anxiety in Europe.
• He looked for allies but found none because British policy was against military engagements in Europe, and Russia had already been neutralized.
• In case of French attack, PRUSSIA was the South German States' only hope.
• Bismarck won this battle by diplomacy.

Push for War and the Spanish Throne

• To persuade the South States, unification was not yet complete.
• Bismarck needed war with France and also needed FRANCE to act first to be seen as the aggressor.
• In this case, PRUSSIA would be South States' their only hope.
• Napoleon had many domestic & foreign problems, and hoped that victory would make him a hero.
• The opportunity came over the issue of the Spanish Throne.
• In 1868, the Glorious Revolution in Spain led to Queen Isabella II being deposed and presented the problem of who to crown as king.
• SPAIN offered the throne to LEOPOLD a member of the PRUSSIAN Hohenzollern Dynasty.

Decline of the Kaiser and Ems Dispatch

• The Kaiser declined the offer, and matters could have ended there, but NAPOLEON was anxious.

• Napoleon demanded a guarantee from the Kaiser that no Hohenzollern would EVER be a candidate for the Spanish throne.

• The KAISER declined to give one.

• Kaiser refused to commit Prussia to an indefinite future, and the two departed calmly with no incident after the French ambassador visited the Kaiser at his retreat at EMS.

• The Kaiser sent Bismarck a message/dispatch about the encounter from Berlin.

• Bismarck released an edited version of the message to the press known as: THE EMS DISPATCH.

• Bismarck's edited version made BOTH parties appear as insulting each other with France making a request and the Kaiser refusing.

• It created national outrage!

• It was improper and got people furious with both GERMAN & FRENCH demanding retribution.

• THE RESULT WAS EXACTLY WHAT BISMARCK WANTED.

France Declares War and German Victory

• FRANCE declares war.
• The BATTLE OF SEDAN in 1870 was a record swift battle with Prussia winning a decisive victory.
• There were heavy losses.
• NAPOLEON was taken prisoner with 21,000 French soldiers and later exiled to England.
• The PRUSSIANS marched on Paris and laid siege to the city for 4 months.
• FRENCH defended HEROICALLY until January 1870.
• FRENCH finally negotiated for peace.

Frankfurt Peace Treaty and Terms

• Bismarck never lost focus and was not concerned with France as HIS AIM WAS the UNIFICATION of Germans under Prussian control.
• South German States FINALLY became part of this structure.
• The Frankfurt Peace Treaty was proclaimed in 1871 and signed in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, adding INSULT to INJURY.
• Bismarck declared the 2nd Reich.
• Kaiser William would be king and AUSTRIA remained outside.
• Under the terms of the treaty:
  • FRANCE would be a Republic
  • FRANCE would pay a large war indemnity
  • The PRUSSIAN army would remain on borders until the amount was settled
  • ALSACE-LORRAINE would go to Prussia

Alsace-Lorraine

• Alsace-Lorraine was very valuable to France on both economic & national levels because it was a Major industrial region, an area of abundant in raw material, and contained a Large number of French population.

Conclusion of German Unification

• BISMARCK took his chances and won.
• GERMANS were united under the Hohenzollern Dynasty of Prussia.
• GERMAN life standardized on the Prussian model.
• JUNKERS remained the principle power-group.

Bismarck and Kaiser Wilhelm II

• Bismarck was a MASTER of complex politics.
• He used diplomacy like REALPOLITIK and applied a very powerful rule at home, gaining him the nickname IRON CHANCELLOR.
• As long as he was in power, his SHREWD politics MAINTAINED PEACE IN EUROPE.
• In 1890, WILLIAM II opposed ALL of Bismarck's policies and dismissed Bismarck because it was his ambition was to make Germany a world power.
• The established Balance of European order was disrupted as a result.
• BISMARCK had become an ICON and was seen as the all-wise, all-knowing statesman.
• The young Kaiser William II wanted to enjoy 'personal rule'.
• He found a group of dedicated flatterers who encouraged his MEGALOMANIA.
• Bismarck embodied and manifested The GREATNESS of Germany, and when he fell, the institutions ceased to work.

William's Foreign Policy and WWI

• WILLIAM’S foreign policy was aimed at super Military power.
• He failed to understand that Bismarck carefully manipulated international rivalries and only Used MILITARY force as a LAST RESORT AFTER exhausting diplomacy.
• WILLIAM II REVERSED Bismarck's policy of diplomacy and by alarming all European powers with his expansionist policy.
• He triggered an ARMS RACE with Britain and COMPETED in the colonies and as a result, the FRENCH-BRITISH alliance signed was against him.
• Eventually his actions led to WWI.
• William was FORCED to abdicate in 1918 and His abdication ENDED the German Empire and Germany was known as: WEIMER REPUBLIC.
• The Unification of Germany CHALLENGED Europe and because of this caused general ANXIETY enough to result in WWI, with Its military power becoming a THREAT to Europe.
• Germans FLAUNTED their power with a military power that became a THREAT to Europe.

A look at the fragmented political landscape of the Italian peninsula. It explores the influence of revolutionary France and the rise of Italian nationalism. Focus on Giuseppe Mazzini and the Young Italy movement, and their impact on the unification.