Understanding Urbanisation

• Urbanisation refers to an increase in the proportion of a country's population living in urban areas.

Urban vs. Rural Areas

• Urban areas are characterized by large populations, secondary and tertiary occupations, and numerous sophisticated services.
• Rural areas typically have smaller populations and are based on primary industries with few sophisticated services.
• In 2005, the global population was split 50%-50% between urban and rural areas.

Rural-to-Urban Migration

• This involves movement from poorer to richer departments.
• It includes economically-motivated migrants.
• This leads to the growth of megacities.
• Emerging economies often experience high levels of economic development in megacities due to rapid growth.

Shifts in Megacity Dominance

• In 1950, MEDC cities were more likely to be megacities, this is changing with emerging economies increasingly becoming megacities.
• By 2030, African cities are projected to dominate megacity growth.
• It is predicted that Africa will possess 40% of the world's population by 2050, exemplified by cities like Cairo and Lagos.
• By 2050, the entire coast of Africa could become a continuous megacity.
• For example, Kinshasa, Africa, demonstrates rapid urban growth, experiencing a 100-fold increase from 1950 to 2020.

Structure of MEDC Cities: Burgess Model

• This model is based on urban land rent theory.
• Residential areas further from the CBD have a higher quality of housing due to decreased density.
• Land prices increase with distance from the city center.

Central Business District (CBD)

• CBDs are the most accessible locations due to established transport systems
• Businesses locate here to maximize customer access and house headquarters.
• Most CBDs are defined by the tallest buildings and urban profiles.
• The intersection of peak land value occurs in CBDs.
• Harrods in London is an example of a business in a CBD.

Land Use in CBD

• Transportation routes and systems are important, including rail lines, stations, roads and bus stations.
• Town halls are located in the CBD.
• There are administrative buildings for national and local governments
• The CBD contains office buildings of insurance, finance, and major corporate headquarters.
• There are also entertainment venues like museums, theaters, and restaurants.
• Residential buildings in the CBD are scarse and expensive.

Sectors Inside the CBD

• Retail and expensive shops are often located in the inner core.
• Smaller shops, public administration, theaters, and cinemas comprise the outer core.
• Education and social services are located in the frame because rent is less expensive there.

Transitional Zones

• This zone requires proximity to the CBD but more physical space.
• Warehouses provide distribution of products.
• Stadiums require larger spaces.
• Light industries sell goods in the CBD

Zone of Discard

• This zone also called the zone of assimilation is characterised by unemployment.
• In this region, people are frequently moving from place to place
• There is some areas of high employments rates
• In London, CBD characteristics are shifting east from Hackney to Westminster, Kensington, and Chelsea.

Low Class Residential: Terraced Houses

• Terraced houses are houses in a line with shared walls, small back gardens, and back alleyways.
• They are densely populated with limited privacy.
• These dwellings have no car parking or front gardens.
• They are mainly in the zone of transition.

Low Class Residential: Public Housing

• Characterized by blocks of flats (apartments).
• They are often built by the government.
• Public housing projects often see high levels of vandalism.
• They are high density with no private car parking, garden, or privacy.

Middle Class Residential: Semi-Detached Housing

• These are two houses joined together with separate front doors.
• They feature a small garden and a driveway.
• These homes provide more privacy and convenience.
• Semi-detached homes in London are very expensive, costing around 1.5 million ponds.

High Class Residential: Detached Housing

• Detached housing offers privacy, a garage, and a garden in front.

• These areas have lower population density.

• Detached houses have at least 4 bedrooms.

• Density decreases father from the city center due to the cost of land.

• Models based on land rent principles highlight three main points in urban development.

• These include land rent, role of transportation, and CBD importance.

Sector Models

• The Burgess model emphasizes land rent as a key factor.
• Hoyt's sector model focuses on the role of transport routes.
• Railways and main roads dictate the development of sectors.
• Harris and Ullman's multiple nuclei model allows for more than one city center.

LEDC: Poorest Housing

• The outer parts of the cities in less economically developed countries have the poorest housing.
• Development is controlled by land rent and rural-to-urban migration.
• Each city varies in structure because of local factors.
• Some of the key local factors include African tribal norms, Indian social hierarchy based on religion and caste , South American rural-to-urban migration impacts and Southeast Asian ethnic groupings.

Latin American City Model (LEDC) differences with MEDC

• No middle class residential areas exits and there is high income inequality
• Typically 90% poor, 10% rich.
• Housing quality declines further from the CBD in LEDCs and Housing quality is reversed in MEDCs.
• Rural-to-urban migration primarily controls the structure of LEDC cities.

LEDC: Zone of Maturity

• This is the old colonial city.
• It has well-designed, narrow streets.
• Most cities are founded in this zone.
• There are many old buildings.
• These zones have been subdivided into smaller swellings, commonly seen in Callejones de Lima.
• Examples include centro histórico de Lima, Rimac, and Cercado de Lima.

LEDC: Central Industrial Spine

• The central industrial spine runs alongside major roads from the city center to the edge.
• An example of this is the Paseo de la Republica in Lima.
• There is efficient transportation.
• Commercial activities and small industries are present on both sides of the road.
• Examples include Petroperu, banking in San Isidro, and car part importers.

LEDC: Elite Residential - near Industrial Space

• Elite residential areas are near the central industrial spine, like San Isidro in Lima by Paseo de la Republica and Javier Prado because business owners need to be near by and lack MRT in LEDC
• Houses have walled gardens and apartment blocks for economic and security reasons, for example el golf in san isidro.

LEDC Squatter Settlement Improvements

• Improved squatter settlements improves overtime with long squatting periods, improving and upgrading buildings.
• Example Villa el Salvador in Lima
• Houses are made of better materials like bricks and concrete.
• Residents install utility connections for electricity, water, and sewage.
• The land is formalized eith a proper title.
• Municipalities improve the area by providing sidewalks and adding green spaces and parks.
• People avoid steep land and near rivers when building.

LEDC Squatter Settlements

• Squatter settlements are found in unoccupied areas.
• These areas have cheaper land and have steep houses, eg. on the outskirts of the city or next to rivers.
• A squatter is a person who does not own land.

Steps of Squatter Settlement process

• Squatters organize land invasion with portable materials and plastic sheeting.
• Second step is they improve materials if they avoid eviction.
• An example of this step is replacing building materials with plywood, wood and connect utilities.
• The third step involves seeking land titles from the government, which may be supported by the COFOPRI in Peru.
• 29% of Lima’s population lives in poverty

Consequences of Informal Sector

• People are not registered with the government as employed, so there are no taxes taken.
• There's no social security regulations, low pays, and long working hours and there are no safety standards.
• 71.65% of people work in the informal sector like retail and street sellers.

Informal Seller Location Considerations

• Access to customer traffic mainly via public transport routes influences location
• A location has to be free of legal enforcement to avoid eviction.

Impact of Street Selling

• Congestion increases from road blockage, filling up streets, and blocking the roadway.
• pedestrian traffic increases.
• Litter and noise pollution increases .
• Poor maintenence and more graffiti

Data on Informal Sector Research

• Security (the safety of the area)
• Access to main roads and shops
• Services provided
• Availability of infrastructure
• Traffic and traffic congestion
• Colonial structure
• People congestion
• Environmental quality
• Land use
• Customer flows via questionnaires
• Traffic counts
• Mototaxi counts
• Pedestrian counts

Casma Study on Informal Sector

• Should not be biased
• Should be representative sample
  • Random sampling
  • Systematic sampling (every 5th person)
  • Stratified sampling (divide)

Factors Affecting City Growth

• Some cities grow quickly, while others do not because migration is based on opportunity.

Push Factors in Rural Areas

• The push factors include low paid jobs, lack of employment variety, and poor access to services/utilities.
• It also includes the lack of entertainment facilities.

Pull Factor in Cities

• The pull factors include better job opportunities and higher pay, improved access to education, healthcare, and utilities (water, electricity).
• There is better access to entertainment

Todaro's Migration Theory

• Suggests that rural-to-urban migration decisions are based on the probability of a highwage rate.

Primate Cities Problem

• Occurs when one city is more than twice as large than the next largest city.
• For example, Lima is 10x larger than Arequipa.

Positive Feedback Loop in City Primacy

• This loop increases primate city size
• The loop consists of city becomes primate, more factories invest, more workers are needed, more chances a higher paid job

Actions To Reduce primate city dominance

• In 1960, Brazil reduced primate city dominance, by moving capital to Brazilia to reduce SE Brazil economic grip
• The government did urban planning to make it a atractive location and implemented an artificial lake and designed it with 2 main wings connected to the center with governments.
• Results show the city is now is Brazil's 3rd largest city and acheived movment of federal administration from the southeast

The wide Avenues werent sutible

Urban-to-rural migration involves laborisation due to internal motivations.

Push Factors of urban living

High land prices, high crimes rates, limited are of recreation, and high polution levels.

Pull Factors of rural living

Lower overall land prices, afford a home with a garden, locations are often connected to fast transport links, safer enviroment, lower polution levels and space for children to play

Commuter Villages

• Are small settlements near fast routes that connect to urban centers, the eg is Haywards Heath in Sussex.
• Have disadvantages

Settelment Services

• The disadvantages include saturated services (not enough hospitals), poor access to shops, and lacking community spirit, high prices and price out lcoals
• Low-ordered services sell goods demanded frequently, often walkable or bicycle, groceries.
• High-ordered services sells less requested items and a car is often necessary for purchase, like electrical goods.

Settlement Size

• This refers to the relation of the number of settlements with the number of services.
• A small population is required to require services, defined by
• grocery store needing 500 people and electric store needs 50k people.

Settlement Size and Required Services

• Hamlets: may have no services
• Villages: basic services that require a small threshold population
• Small Towns: more services wich needs a larger threshold poplation
• Larger Towns: much more sophisticated services like schools, hospitals and electrical stories.

Sphere of Influence

• The sphere of influence is the area where people are prepared to travel to find a shop or service.

Populations of various cities including Lima

• Trujillo : 1,034,000
• Casma : 57,256
• Chimbote : 401,134
• Lima : 11,172,000

Maps Are Key

• The landscape should be ascertained in the map. -> GEOMORPHOLOGICAL MAP.
• The distance from mainland to island and width of island must be less than 1.5 in order for the island to form
• To also ascertain wave refration. -> Wave Orthogonal map.

Megacities

• In Lima, which has a population of roughly 11 million, The nearby Arequipa has only roughly 1million
• Megacities have high economic migrations.
• People migrate to urban centres to gain access
  • To better utilities.
  • And to gain better services
• Centralization comes more than twice than this.

Urban problems in Lima

• Causes of high congestion, high social inequality between communities and high crime

Solutuions of congestion

• Are to
• Create means of fast public transport
• Build more roads leading to squatter settlements

Air pollution causes

• Air pollution causes photochemical smog in which 80% of smog is caused by vehicles
• The troposphere has 10%
• The stratosphere has 90%

Air pollution

• Causes respiratory problems like asthma and brochtitis
• Causes eye irritation and tissue damage
• It also reduce photosynthesis
• Causes 2% economic losses in MEDC and 5% in LEDC
• In some geographical region the geography is so that pollution would not escape easily and will build up with the effects amplified known as pollution traps.
• Places like Mexico City cause pollution traps.

Ways to reduce pollution

• Implement public transport
• Implementing leaded fuel

Economic measures

• Implement a congestion for driving in the area of which has been done in London.

London case study

• The plan was to reduce traffic volume as well reduce noise and air polution.

• The down side of this approach is that it is expansive to to transit and deliver goods.

• Since 2013, access to CCZ was geven to electric cares of a type of discount. Called ULED

• A ULEZ, a ULEZ is declared the amount of fine is declared as 15 GBP

• These factors reduce pollution by tonnes 80 of MP2.5

• The negative of congestion charges:

  • Violates freedom
  • Low income cannot get access
  • Monitoring cameras monitor population

• The positive

  • Reduces pollutants

Green Spaces

• Osio - 39 per M2 Per person

• London -31. 69 squared metres per-person

• Lima -3 Ms per person

• Reasons for green spaces is for regulating services.

• The provision provides grazing land and provides some cultural services for leisure.

• San Juan de Lorigancho

• Has 1.2 people with squatters and filled with garbage.

Green spaces in line which includes.

• Plantanos de Villa (wild life) and is under protection and controlled on access

• Paul Poulet park as well

• Park area along the coast where the public is allowed to take

• the negative sies the poor levels on early urban planning.

• Lime inadequate, getting worse.

London

• With 31.69 per Meter squared
• London will allow 50% access in the 30 years
• The London dockards was a successful but

Redevelopment

• Railway and demolitich were the main reasons for dock yard success
• Albedo caused more cities to become hot
• Windows reflect
• Bricks absorb heat
• In terms of city planning,
• The temperature will the reduce as plants absorb
• The green fund help sustain it.

Green Rooftops Increase Sustainability

• Green rooftop have many beneifts including reducing temprature, increasin habits for animals
• In some cities planting is done residential streets to help with shade

Verical farms

• Expand nature, reduces footprint,
• In london there is good honey production
• And high bees density.

Sustainiblity

• Can be gauged by ecological foot print and how well resocurces can be obtained.
• Sustainiblity has to do with Diet as well.
• Curitibia, the city with the highest recycle .

UAE

• Mas Dar aim is 40% water and energy.
• Dubai design to save water and create economic prosperity.
• They also have old cities like

Old Scandinavian Cities

• Sweeden, Norway , Denmark

• Stockholm sweden has some of the most eco policies

• High green areas.

Revision

• Reasons of how sea levels rise.

  • Isostatic changes
  • Climatic change

• Features

• In terms of human avcivtites, Marine tarraces are un unstable for farming

• Shipping

• Salmon farming

• Tourism

Submergence

• Sea revel rises and the land falls
• River become vallyes.
• Good for harbors to pronmote trade from shipping.

Coastal Management

• Is tough to manage
• And conflict arises due to economic factors.

Improvements;

• Place cases proeply Question What are characteristics of CBD (central bussiness district) More access Tall building.