Understanding Structuralism

• Structuralism is a broad intellectual movement that emphasizes the underlying structures and systems of relationships that organize thought, culture, and language.

Core Principles of Structuralism

• Focus on underlying structures: Structuralism posits that observable phenomena are surface manifestations of deeper, more fundamental structures.
• Emphasis on relationships: Meaning is derived not from individual items but from the relationships between them within a system.
• Search for universal principles: Structuralists seek to uncover universal principles that govern these structures, applicable across different cultures and contexts.
• Synchronic analysis: Structuralism favors analyzing a system at a specific point in time (synchronic) rather than tracing its historical development (diachronic).
• Objectivity: Structuralists aim for objective analysis, distancing themselves from subjective interpretations.

Structuralism and Linguistics

• Ferdinand de Saussure is considered the founder of modern linguistics and a key figure in the development of structuralism.
• Saussure distinguished between langue (the abstract system of language) and parole (individual instances of language use). Structuralism focuses on langue.
• Sign: Saussure defined the linguistic sign as composed of two inseparable parts: the signifier (the sound-image or written form) and the signified (the concept).
• Arbitrariness of the sign: The relationship between the signifier and the signified is arbitrary; there is no inherent connection between them.
• Difference: Meaning arises from the differences between signs within a system, not from any inherent quality of the sign itself. "Dog" means "dog" because it is not "cat", "log", etc.
• Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations: Signs have syntagmatic relations (horizontal combinations in a sequence, e.g., a sentence) and paradigmatic relations (vertical sets of possible substitutions, e.g., synonyms).

Structuralism in Literary Theory

• Structuralist literary criticism applies linguistic principles to the study of literature.
• Focus on narrative structure: Structuralists analyze the underlying patterns and codes that govern literary narratives.
• Claude Lévi-Strauss's influence: Lévi-Strauss's structural anthropology, which examined myths and kinship systems, influenced structuralist literary critics.
• Morphology of the Folktale: Vladimir Propp's analysis of Russian folktales identified recurring character types and narrative functions ("functions" are basic narrative units).
• Functions: Propp identified 31 functions that appear in a fixed order in many folktales, such as the "villainy," the "departure of the hero," and the "victory over the villain."
• Narratology: A branch of structuralist literary theory that studies the structure of narratives.
• Gérard Genette: Developed concepts such as "narrative levels" (extradiegetic, diegetic, metadiegetic) and "focalization" (who perceives the story).
• Tzvetan Todorov: Proposed a basic narrative structure of equilibrium, disruption, and restoration of equilibrium.
• Roland Barthes: Explored the codes and conventions that readers use to interpret texts.
• Codes: Barthes identified five codes: hermeneutic (enigma), proairetic (action), semantic (connotation), symbolic (themes), and cultural (references to shared knowledge).

Key Concepts in Structuralist Literary Analysis

• Binary oppositions: Structuralists often identify binary oppositions (e.g., good/evil, male/female) that structure narratives and reveal underlying cultural assumptions.
• Mythemes: Lévi-Strauss used the term "mythemes" to describe the fundamental units of myths.
• Myth as language: Myths are seen as a form of language with its own grammar and syntax.
• Deconstruction: A post-structuralist approach that critiques structuralism's assumptions about fixed structures and stable meanings, emphasizing the instability and fluidity of language.

Criticisms of Structuralism

• Ahistoricism: Critics argue that structuralism ignores historical and cultural contexts.
• Determinism: Some see structuralism as deterministic, suggesting that individuals are simply products of pre-existing structures.
• Neglect of the individual: Structuralism is seen as de-emphasizing individual agency and creativity.
• Rigidity: The search for universal structures can lead to overly rigid and simplistic interpretations.

Post-Structuralism

• Response to Structuralism: Post-structuralism emerged as a critique of structuralism, challenging its core assumptions.
• Rejection of fixed structures: Post-structuralists argue that structures are not fixed or stable but are fluid, unstable, and subject to change.
• Emphasis on difference and deconstruction: Post-structuralists emphasize the importance of difference and the impossibility of arriving at a single, objective meaning.
• Key figures: Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, and Julia Kristeva are key figures in post-structuralism.
• Deconstruction: Derrida's concept of deconstruction involves uncovering the internal contradictions and hidden assumptions within texts.
• Logocentrism: Derrida critiqued "logocentrism," the Western philosophical tradition's reliance on a central, fixed point of truth or meaning.
• Différance: Derrida coined the term "différance" to capture the idea that meaning is always deferred and dependent on difference.
• Power and knowledge: Foucault explored the relationship between power and knowledge, arguing that power shapes what counts as knowledge.
• Discourse: Foucault introduced the concept of "discourse," which refers to systems of thought, language, and practice that construct social reality.