Understanding Science: Principles and Methods

• Science approaches understanding via observation, experimentation, and analysis.
• Science aims to explain facts and phenomena
• Science develops predictive theories or models.
• Science relies on empirical evidence, acquired through the scientific method

Core Principles of Science

• Objectivity minimizes bias in data collection and its interpretation.
• Conclusions should be based on verifiable, empirical evidence via observation/experimentation.
• Claims/conclusions should be questioned, requiring substantiating evidence.
• Openness dictates sharing data/methods/results, allowing scrutiny/replication.
• Reproducibility means experiments/observations can be repeated to verify results.

Scientific Method

• The scientific method provides a systematic approach to scientific inquiry.
• Identify a phenomenon/problem via observation to be investigated.
• A hypothesis formulates a testable explanation/prediction.
• Experimentation involves designing/conducting controlled experiments to test the hypothesis.
• Data analysis identifies patterns and relationships from collected experimental data.
• A conclusion determines whether the evidence supports/refutes the hypothesis.
• Communication shares results/conclusions, especially in scientific publications/presentations.

Branches of Science

• Natural sciences study the physical world and its phenomena.
• Physics studies matter, energy, and their interactions.
• Chemistry studies the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter.
• Biology studies living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, origin, evolution, and distribution.
• Astronomy studies space, celestial objects, and the physical universe.
• Earth science studies the Earth's structure, history, and processes.
• Social sciences study human society and behavior.
• Psychology studies the mind and behavior.
• Sociology studies human society and social interactions.
• Economics studies the production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services.
• Political science studies politics, government, and political behavior.
• Anthropology studies human society/cultures and their development.
• Formal sciences apply formal systems to generate knowledge.
• Mathematics studies numbers, quantities, shapes, and their relationships.
• Logic studies the principles of valid reasoning/inference.
• Computer science studies computation and information processing.

Scientific Theories and Laws

• A scientific theory is a well-substantiated explanation incorporating facts, laws, inferences, and tested hypotheses.
• Scientific laws define invariable relationships observed in nature.

Measurement and Units

• Measurement assigns numerical values to physical quantities.
• SI Units (International System of Units) are the standardized units used in science.
• Length is measured in meters (m).
• Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
• Time is measured in seconds (s).
• Temperature is measured in Kelvin (K).
• Electric current is measured in Amperes (A).
• The amount of a substance is measured in moles (mol).
• Luminous intensity is measured in candelas (cd).

Data Collection and Analysis

• Qualitative data is descriptive (e.g., color, texture, shape) and not easily measured.
• Quantitative data is numerical (e.g., length, mass, temperature) and analyzed statistically.
• Statistical analysis includes measures of central tendency and measures of variability.
• Measures of central tendency include mean, median, and mode.
• Measures of variability include range and standard deviation.

Error Analysis

• Systematic errors consistently skew measurements away from the true value.
• Random errors cause unpredictable measurement variations.
• Precision reflects the repeatability of measurements.
• Accuracy reflects how close a measurement is to the true value.

Scientific Communication

• Scientific papers are formal reports of original research in journals.
• Peer review evaluates scientific papers by independent experts before publication.
• Conferences gather scientists to discuss research findings.
• Presentations at conferences/seminars can be oral/poster formats.
• Scientific journals publish peer-reviewed papers.

Ethics in Science

• Integrity dictates conducting research honestly, without data falsification.
• Objectivity minimizes bias/conflicts of interest.
• Openness means data, methods, and results are shared.
• Respecting intellectual property means giving appropriate credit.
• Responsible publication avoids plagiarism, and accurately presents findings.
• Animal welfare means treating research animals humanely/ethically.
• Human subject protection safeguards the rights/welfare of research participants.

Scientific Instruments

• Microscopes view small objects/structures unseen by the naked eye.
• Telescopes observe distant objects in space.
• Spectrometers analyze light properties.
• Centrifuges separate substances by density.
• Chromatography separates/analyzes complex mixtures.
• Electrophoresis separates molecules by size/charge.

Interdisciplinary Science

• Biochemistry studies chemical processes in living organisms.
• Geophysics studies the Earth's physical properties and processes.
• Bioinformatics applies computer science to studying biological data.
• Environmental science studies human interactions with the environment.
• Materials science studies material properties and applications.

Modern Scientific Challenges

• Climate change requires understanding/mitigating the impacts of human activities.
• Pandemics necessitate strategies to prevent/control infectious diseases.
• Energy sustainability demands finding new, sustainable energy sources.
• Food security must ensure access to safe, nutritious food for all.
• Artificial intelligence requires exploring the benefits and risks.

Explore the core principles of science, including objectivity, empirical evidence, and skepticism. Learn about the importance of openness and reproducibility in scientific research. Understand the scientific method and its systematic approach to discovering and explaining natural phenomena.