Understanding Intelligence

Intelligence

• Intelligence is intellectual ability.
• Intelligent behavior is shown by quickly solving puzzles or getting high scores on IQ tests.
• Low intelligence may be inferred when someone does poorly on such tasks, but other factors like tiredness can affect performance.
• In 1921, experts defined intelligence as the ability to do abstract thinking.
• Experts defined intelligence as the ability to give true or factual responses.
• Experts defined intelligence as the capacity to inhibit instincts with analytical ability and perseverance.
• Experts defined intelligence as the ability to acquire abilities.
• Experts defined intelligence as the ability to learn or to profit by experience.
• Experts defined intelligence as the ability to adjust to new situations.
• Experts defined intelligence as the ability to adjust to the environment.
• Experts defined intelligence as the capacity for knowledge and knowledge possessed.
• Verbal, problem-solving, and practical intelligence were identified as key factors.
• David Wechsler's definition is a popular one.

Concept of CA, MA, and IQ

• Alfred Binet created the first intelligence test (Binet-Simon) in 1905 to identify academically struggling children.
• The Binet-Simon test was revised in 1908 and 1911.
• William Stern introduced the concept of Intelligence Quotient (IQ) in 1912.
• IQ represents an individual's score on a standardized intelligence test.
• IQ scores are used for comparing intellectual ability with peers of the same age.
• Lewis Terman revised the Binet-Simon test in 1916, renaming it the Stanford-Binet test.
• Terman's revision reconceptualized the relationship between Chronological Age (CA) and Mental Age (MA).
• Mental Age (MA) is the typical intelligence level for a given chronological age.
• Chronological Age (CA) is the actual age of the child taking the test.
• Terman found the ratio between MA and CA to be a better indicator of intelligence.
• The formula for calculating IQ is: IQ = (MA / CA) x 100.
• 100 is used to avoid decimals.
• An IQ of 100 means MA equals CA.

Distribution of IQ in the Population

• The average IQ is 100, irrespective of age.
• IQ scores are distributed so that most people score in the middle range, forming a bell-shaped curve (normal curve).
• The normal distribution range is between 84 and 116.
• IQ between 90-110 indicates normal intelligence.
• IQ below 70 may indicate intellectual disability.
• IQ above 130 indicates exceptional talents.
• About 2% of the population has IQ above 130 (intellectually gifted).
• About 2% of the population has IQ below 70 (intellectually disabled).
• These two groups deviate significantly from the normal population in cognitive, emotional, and motivational characteristics.

Intellectual Disability (Mentally Retarded)

• Intellectually disabled children show intellectual deficiency.
• The American Association on Mental Deficiency (AAMD) defines intellectual disability as significantly sub-average intellectual functioning existing with deficits in adaptive behavior and during the developmental period.
• The definition includes sub-average intellectual functioning (IQs below 70).
• Deficits in adaptive behavior means a person's capacity to be independent and deal effectively with the environment.
• Deficits must be observed during the developmental period (0-18 years).
• Mild intellectual disability means IQ of 55-70.
• Moderate intellectual disability means IQ of 35-54.
• Severe intellectual disability means IQ of 20-34.
• Profound intellectual disability means IQ below 20.
• People with mild disability have low intellectual capability, but can function quite independently an hold jobs.
• People with moderate disability lag behind in language and motor skills.
• People with severe and profound disability are incapable of managing life and need constant care and assistance.
• As the level of disability increases, the difficulties are more strongly marked.

Intellectually Gifted

• Intellectually gifted persons show higher performance because of their outstanding potentialities.
• Gifted children display early signs of intellectual superiority.
• In infancy and early childhood, signs include larger attention span, good recognition memory, preference for novelty, sensitivity, and early language skills.
• Gifted children need special attention and educational programs.

Howard Gardner's Theory of Multiple Intelligences

• Howard Gardner proposed the theory of multiple intelligences in 1983.
• It suggests that intelligence is not limited to IQ testing.
• Nine intelligences account for human potential: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist, and existential.
• Linguistic intelligence is "word smart".
• Logical-mathematical intelligence means "number/reasoning smart".
• Spatial intelligence means "picture smart".
• Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence means "body smart".
• Musical intelligence means "music smart".
• Interpersonal intelligence means "people smart".
• Intrapersonal intelligence means "self smart".
• Naturalist intelligence means "nature smart".
• Existential Intelligence means "life smart".
• Verbal-linguistic intelligence means (well-developed verbal skills and sensitivity to the sounds, meanings and rhythms of words).
• Logical-mathematical intelligence means (ability to think conceptually and abstractly, and capacity to discern logical and numerical patterns).
• Spatial-visual intelligence means (capacity to think in images and pictures, to visualize accurately and abstractly).
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence means (ability to control one's body movements and to handle objects skillfully).
• Musical intelligences means (ability to produce and appreciate rhythm, pitch and timber).
• Interpersonal intelligence means (capacity to detect and respond appropriately to the moods, motivations and desires of others).
• Intrapersonal intelligence means (capacity to be self-aware and in tune with inner feelings, values, beliefs and thinking processes).
• Naturalist intelligence means (ability to recognize and categorize plants, animals and other objects in nature).
• Existential intelligence means (sensitivity and capacity to tackle deep questions about human existence).
• Learning materials should be presented in multiple ways.
• The intelligences are anatomically separated but can be used concurrently and complement each other.
• Application areas includes curriculum development, planning instruction, selection of course activities, and related assessment strategies.
• Instruction designed to help students learn material in multiple ways can trigger their confidence to develop areas in which they are not as strong.
• Students' learning is enhanced when instruction includes a range of methods, activities, and assessments.

J.P. Guilford's Structure of Intellect

• Guilford viewed intelligence as multiple independent abilities.
• Intelligence consists of numerous intellectual abilities.
• By the 1950's, Guilford felt there needed to be a system developed to classify the new mental abilities being discovered.
• The Structure-of-Intellect (SOI) model defines intelligence as a systematic collection of abilities to process different items of information.
• Model organized abilities along three dimensions: content, product, and process.
• Factors are arranged in a Three-fold model.
• The SOI model originally included four content types, five operation types, and six product types, resulting in 120 factors.
• The latest version of SOI includes six operations, six products, and five contents, with 180 factors.
• Content refers to the different types of information people think about.
• The original content types are figural, symbolic, semantic, and behavioral.
• In the updated version, Figural is split into Visual and Auditory.
• Visual: Information arising from stimulation on the retina in the form of an image.
• Auditory: Information arising from stimulation of the cochlea of the ear as image.
• Symbolic: items such as words and symbols.
• Semantic: Information perceived in words or sentences or in one's mind.
• Behavioral: Information about the mental states and behavior of observed individuals.
• Product relates to the kinds of information we process from the content types
• Units: Ability to perceive units in a content area.
• Classes: Ability to organize units into meaningful groups.
• Relations: Ability to sense the relationships between pairs of units.
• Systems: Relationships among more than two units.
• Transformations: Ability to understand changes in information.
• Implications: Refers to expectation.
• Operations: Describes what the brain does with these types of things.
• Cognition: Ability to perceive the various items.
• Memory (Memory recording and Memory Retention): Ability to store and retrieve information.
• Divergent production: Ability to access memory & list large numbers of ideas fitting simple criteria.
• Convergent Production: The search of memory for the single answer to a question or situation.
• Evaluation: Ability to make judgements about the various kinds of information.
• The original equation was: 5 operations x 6 products x 4 contents = 120 factors.
• Revised equation: 6 operations x 6 products x 5 contents = 180 factors.

Cattell's Theory of Intelligence

• Raymond Cattell developed the theory of crystallized and fluid intelligence.
• He distinguished between fluid intelligence (gf) and crystallized intelligence (gc).
• Fluid intelligence (gf) is the ability to perform on nonverbal tasks without prior knowledge.
• Crystallized intelligence (gc) is the ability to do well on verbal tasks, influenced by prior knowledge.
• Gf represents information processing and reasoning ability.
• Gf is dependent on the central nervous system.
• Gf is therefore biological and declines over the adult lifespan.
• Gf can be measured by tests of puzzle solving, block designs and spatial visualization.
• Gc is used to acquire, retain, organize, and conceptualize information.
• Gc is dependent on experience and education.
• gc may increase with cultural exposure and as experience makes individuals wiser.
• Measures of Gc can be measured through tests of general knowledge, use of language (vocabulary) and acquired skills.
• Gf is like the processor of a PC, refers to processes rather than content,
• Gc is like the data files and software saved onto a PC, refers to content or information rather than processes.
• Important to measure both as it is beneficial for estimating both a person's learning potential and acquired knowledge.

Measurement of Intelligence: Types of Intelligence Tests

• Intelligence tests can be individual or group tests.
• They can be classified as verbal or performance tests.
• Depending on culture, they can be culture-fair or culture-biased.
• Verbal tests: consist of entirely verbal material dealing with vocabulary, general information.
• Non-verbal tests: involve no language, but pictures, drawing, block patterns.
• Individual tests are administered to one person at a time.
• Group tests are administered to a large number of individuals at a time.
• Individual tests require establishing rapport, while group tests usually seek written answers.
• Intelligence tests may be verbal, non-verbal, or performance-based.
• Verbal tests require verbal responses and are for literate people.
• Non-verbal tests use pictures or illustrations as test items.

Culture-Fair or Culture-Biased Tests

• Intelligence tests can be culture-fair or culture-biased.
• Many intelligence tests show a bias to the culture in which they are developed.
• Tests developed in America and Europe represent an urban and middle class cultural.
• Psychologists have tried to develop tests that are culture-fair or culturally appropriate.
• One that does not discriminate against individuals belonging to different cultures.
• In such tests, items are constructed in a manner that they assess experiences common to all cultures.
• Few examples of Intelligences tests
• Stanford-Binet Test of Intelligence identifies students who need to be placed in separate classes.
• Individual responses in four content areas:
• Verbal reasoning
• Quantitative reasoning
• Abstract/visual reasoning
• Short-term memory
• Wechsler Scales
  • Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS): Age17 years and above
  • Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC): Age 6 to 16 years
• Raven's Progressive Matrices
  • Children's Progressive Matrices (CPM)
  • Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM)
  • Advanced Progressive Matrices (APM)