Understanding English Grammar

• Grammar constitutes the structural rules that govern the composition of clauses, phrases, and words in natural language
• Grammar includes morphology, syntax, phonology, and semantics
• Morphology is the study of the forms of words
• Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences
• Phonology is the study of a language's sound system
• Semantics is the study of the meaning of words and sentences

Parts of Speech

• Nouns represent people, places, things, or ideas
• Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition
  • Examples: he, she, it, they
• Verbs express actions, occurrences, or states of being
• Adjectives describe nouns or pronouns
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs
• Prepositions show the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in the sentence
  • Examples: in, on, at, to, from
• Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses
  • Examples: and, but, or, so, because
• Interjections express strong emotion
  • Examples: Wow! Ouch!

Sentence Structure

• Subject: The noun or pronoun that performs the action of the verb
• Predicate: The part of the sentence that contains the verb and says something about the subject
• Object: A noun or pronoun that receives the action of the verb

Types of Sentences

• Simple sentences contain one independent clause
• Compound sentences contain two or more independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction, semicolon, or colon
• Complex sentences contain one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses
• Compound-complex sentences contain two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses

Verb Tenses

• Present tense expresses an action happening now or a general truth
• Past tense expresses an action that happened in the past
• Future tense expresses an action that will happen in the future
• Perfect tenses indicate completed or finished actions
  • Present perfect
  • Past perfect
  • Future perfect
• Progressive tenses indicate ongoing actions
  • Present progressive
  • Past progressive
  • Future progressive

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Singular subjects take singular verbs
• Plural subjects take plural verbs
• Collective nouns can be singular or plural, depending on whether they refer to the group as a whole or its individual members

Pronoun Agreement

• Pronouns must agree in number and gender with their antecedents (the nouns they refer to)

Common Grammatical Errors

• Sentence fragments are incomplete sentences that do not have an independent clause
• Run-on sentences are two or more independent clauses that are not properly joined
• Misplaced modifiers are words or phrases that are not clearly connected to the word they are intended to modify
• Dangling modifiers are words or phrases that do not have a clear word to modify in the sentence
• Incorrect Pronoun Case: Using the wrong form of a pronoun
  • e.g., I vs. me, he vs. him
• Faulty parallelism does not use the same grammatical structure for elements in a list or series

Punctuation

• Period (.): Used at the end of declarative sentences
• Question Mark (?): Used at the end of interrogative sentences
• Exclamation Point (!): Used at the end of exclamatory sentences
• Comma (,): Used to separate elements in a list, introduce or interrupt a sentence, and separate independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction
• Semicolon (;): Used to join two closely related independent clauses or separate items in a list that already contains commas
• Colon (:): Used to introduce a list, explanation, or example
• Apostrophe ('): Used to indicate possession or form contractions
• Quotation Marks (" "): Used to enclose direct quotations or indicate titles of short works
• Hyphen (-): Used to join words or parts of words
• Dash (—): Used to indicate a sudden break or interruption in thought

Active and Passive Voice

• Active voice: The subject performs the action
  • Example: The dog chased the ball.
• Passive voice: The subject receives the action
  • Example: The ball was chased by the dog.

Mood

• Indicative: States a fact or asks a question
• Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request
• Subjunctive: Expresses a wish, doubt, or condition contrary to fact

Figures of speech

• Metaphor: A figure of speech that directly compares two unrelated things
• Simile: A figure of speech that compares two unrelated things using "like" or "as"
• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things
• Hyperbole: An exaggerated statement or claim not meant to be taken literally
• Understatement: The presentation of something as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is
• Irony: The expression of one's meaning by using language that normally signifies the opposite, typically for humorous or emphatic effect
• Oxymoron: A figure of speech in which apparently contradictory terms appear in conjunction
• Paradox: A statement or proposition that, despite sound (or apparently sound) reasoning from acceptable premises, leads to a conclusion that seems senseless, logically unacceptable, or self-contradictory
• Pun: A joke exploiting the different possible meanings of a word or the fact that there are words which sound alike but have different meanings
• Alliteration: The occurrence of the same letter or sound at the beginning of adjacent or closely connected words

Common Writing Errors

• Vague Pronoun Reference: When it is unclear which noun a pronoun is referring to.
• Comma Splices: Occur when two independent clauses are connected with only a comma.
• Incorrect Word Choice: Using a word that sounds similar but has a different meaning; e.g., "affect" vs. "effect."
• Lack of Parallelism: Occurs when items in a list or series are not in the same grammatical form.
• Tense Shifting: Inconsistent use of verb tenses within a sentence or paragraph.

Tips for Improving Grammar

• Read widely to improve your understanding of correct grammar and sentence structure
• Practice writing regularly to reinforce your skills
• Use grammar-checking tools
• Seek feedback from others on your writing
• Review grammar rules regularly to keep them fresh in your mind