Fundamentals of English Grammar

• Grammar constitutes the structural rules for composing clauses, phrases, and words in natural language.
• Encompasses morphology, syntax, phonology, and semantics.
• Morphology concerns the internal structure of words.
• Syntax concerns how words combine into phrases and sentences.
• Phonology is the study of speech sounds.
• Semantics is the study of meaning in language.

Parts of Speech

• Nouns represent people, places, things, or ideas.
• Pronouns replace nouns to avoid repetition (e.g., he, she, it, they).
• Verbs express actions or states of being (e.g., run, is, are).
• Adjectives describe nouns (e.g., big, red, happy).
• Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs (e.g., quickly, very, well).
• Prepositions show relationships between nouns/pronouns and other words (e.g., on, in, at, from).
• Conjunctions connect words, phrases, or clauses (e.g., and, but, or).
• Interjections express strong emotion (e.g., Wow! Ouch!).

Sentence Structure

• A sentence expresses a complete thought.
• Subject: The noun or pronoun performing the verb's action.
• Predicate: Part of the sentence with the verb, saying something about the subject.
• Clause: A group of words with a subject and a verb.
• Independent Clause: A complete thought that can stand alone as a sentence.
• Dependent Clause: An incomplete thought that cannot stand alone.
• Phrase: A group of words lacking a subject and a verb.

Types of Sentences

• Simple Sentence: One independent clause.
• Compound Sentence: Two+ independent clauses joined by a coordinating conjunction or semicolon.
• Complex Sentence: One independent clause plus one+ dependent clauses.
• Compound-Complex Sentence: Two+ independent clauses plus one+ dependent clauses.

Verb Tenses

• Present Tense: Expresses an action happening now or regularly.
• Past Tense: Expresses a past action.
• Future Tense: Expresses a future action.
• Perfect Tenses: Indicate completed actions.
• Present Perfect: Action started in the past and continues to the present.
• Past Perfect: Action completed before another action in the past.
• Future Perfect: Action will be completed before a specific time in the future.
• Continuous Tenses: Indicate ongoing actions.
• Present Continuous: Action is happening now.
• Past Continuous: Action was happening in the past.
• Future Continuous: Action will be happening in the future.
• Perfect Continuous Tenses: Indicate ongoing actions over a period.
• Present Perfect Continuous: Action started in the past and is still happening.
• Past Perfect Continuous: Action had been happening before another action in the past.
• Future Perfect Continuous: Action will have been happening for a period of time before a specific time in the future.

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Singular subjects use singular verbs.
• Plural subjects use plural verbs.
• Compound subjects joined by "and" usually take plural verbs.
• Collective nouns (e.g., team, family) can be singular or plural based on whether they act as a unit or as individuals.

Pronoun Agreement

• Pronouns must agree in number and gender with the nouns they replace.
• Singular pronouns replace singular nouns.
• Plural pronouns replace plural nouns.
• Gender-neutral pronouns (e.g., they, them, their) are used when the noun's gender is unknown or non-binary.

Punctuation

• Period (.): Ends a declarative sentence.
• Question Mark (?): Ends an interrogative sentence.
• Exclamation Point (!): Ends an exclamatory sentence.
• Comma (,): Separates list items, joins independent clauses with coordinating conjunctions, sets off introductory phrases/clauses, and separates nonessential info.
• Semicolon (;): Joins two closely related independent clauses.
• Colon (:): Introduces a list, explanation, or example.
• Apostrophe (’): Indicates possession or contraction.
• Quotation Marks (""): Enclose direct quotations.
• Hyphen (-): Joins words to form compound words or divides words at the end of a line.
• Dash (—): Indicates a sudden break in thought or sets off parenthetical information.

Common Grammatical Errors

• Subject-verb agreement errors.
• Pronoun agreement errors.
• Misplaced modifiers.
• Dangling modifiers.
• Incorrect tense usage.
• Incorrect word choice (e.g., affect vs. effect, there vs. their vs. they're).
• Comma splices (joining two independent clauses with only a comma).
• Run-on sentences (joining two independent clauses without proper punctuation or conjunction).
• Fragments (incomplete sentences).

Active vs. Passive Voice

• Active Voice: Subject performs the action (e.g., "The dog chased the ball.").
• Passive Voice: Subject receives the action (e.g., "The ball was chased by the dog.").
• Clarity and directness are achieved with active voice.
• Passive voice is useful when the action is more important than the actor, or when the actor is unknown.

Mood

• Indicative: States a fact or opinion (e.g., "I am going to the store.").
• Imperative: Gives a command or makes a request (e.g., "Go to the store.").
• Interrogative: Asks a question (e.g., "Are you going to the store?").
• Conditional: Expresses a hypothetical situation (e.g., "If I had time, I would go to the store.").
• Subjunctive: Expresses a wish, doubt, or suggestion (e.g., "I wish I were going to the store.").

Verbals

• Verbs acting as other parts of speech.
• Gerund: A verb acting as a noun (e.g., "Swimming is fun.").
• Participle: A verb acting as an adjective (e.g., "The running water.").
• Infinitive: A verb acting as a noun, adjective, or adverb (e.g., "I like to swim.").

Figures of Speech

• Metaphor: A comparison without using "like" or "as" (e.g., "He is a lion.").
• Simile: A comparison using "like" or "as" (e.g., "He is as brave as a lion.").
• Personification: Giving human qualities to non-human things (e.g., "The wind whispered secrets.").
• Hyperbole: An exaggeration (e.g., "I'm so hungry I could eat a horse.").
• Understatement: Saying less than what is meant (e.g., "It's just a scratch" when there's a large wound.).
• Irony: Using words to convey a meaning that is the opposite of its literal meaning.

Common Usage Issues

• Affect vs. Effect: "Affect" is usually a verb, meaning to influence; "effect" is usually a noun, meaning a result.
• There vs. Their vs. They're: "There" indicates a place; "their" shows possession; "they're" is a contraction of "they are."
• To vs. Too vs. Two: "To" indicates direction or purpose; "too" means also or excessively; "two" is the number 2.
• Its vs. It's: "Its" shows possession; "it's" is a contraction of "it is" or "it has."
• Who vs. Whom: "Who" is used as a subject; "whom" is used as an object.
• Than vs. Then: "Than" is used for comparisons; "then" indicates time or sequence.
• Lie vs. Lay: "Lie" means to recline; "lay" means to place something down.

Style

• Concise Language: Use as few words as possible to convey your meaning.
• Active Voice: Prefer active voice over passive voice for clarity.
• Parallel Structure: Use the same grammatical structure for similar ideas.
• Clarity: Ensure your writing is easy to understand.
• Coherence: Make sure your ideas flow logically.

Usage

• Formal vs. Informal Language: Choose appropriate language depending on the audience and purpose.
• Standard English: Use standard English grammar and vocabulary in formal writing.
• Avoiding Slang and Jargon: Avoid using slang and jargon in formal writing unless the audience is familiar with it.