Understanding Cyberspace Architecture

Cyber Space

• It is a web made of consumer computers, electronics and communication networks connecting consumers globally.
• It is constantly changing as technology, processes, and expertise evolve.
• Cyberspace is a global domain, transcending organizational and geopolitical borders.
• Computing devices, networks, and communications channels are interconnected within cyberspace.
• It uses the electromagnetic spectrum and electrons to create, store, and share information.
• High-speed nature allows for rapid operational maneuver, with information moving nearly at the speed of light.
• Consists of a physical layer made up of tangible devices like routers and data centers.
• It is dynamic, exponential, undefined, and without any fixed shape.

Architecture of Cyberspace

• It transcends geographical boundaries.
• Provides a platform for communication, information sharing and business transactions.
• It is based on a multi-layered model.
• The physical layer consists of hardware, such as routers, switches, servers and networking devices for enabling communication between computers.
• The network layer includes protocols and services to enable communication across different networks.
• The most common protocols for data exchange are Internet Protocol (IP) and Transmission Control Protocol (TCP).
• The application layer is user-facing, made of websites, apps, and platforms accessed via web browsers and mobile applications.
• Data is stored and processed in multiple locations, allowing scalability, flexibility and security.

Applications of Cyberspace

• Email, conferencing, and various means of communication.
• Social interaction via platforms such as Facebook and WhatsApp.
• Cloud computing.
• Government and military applications.
• Job searching.
• Health and medicine applications.
• Online shopping.

Computer Technology

• Essential for personal computing, global communication, and e-commerce.

Computer Technology - Hardware

• Central Processing Unit (CPU) performs calculations and executes instructions.
• Memory (RAM) provides temporary storage for active data and programs.
• Storage such as Hard Drives and SSDs gives long-term storage for files and applications.

Computer Technology - Software

• Operating System (OS) manages hardware resources and provides a user interface, for example, Windows, macOS, or Linux.
• Applications perform specific tasks, such as word processing or graphic design.

Computer Technology - Networking

• Local Area Network (LAN) connects computers with in a limited area.
• Wide Area Network (WAN) connect computers over a larger geographical area.
• The Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers worldwide.

Computer Technology - Security

• Firewalls and Antivirus Software protects against unauthorized access and malware.
• Encryption secures data by converting it into a code.

Computer Technology - Development and Programming

• Programming Languages are tools for writing software code, such as Python, Java, and C++.
• Integrated Development Environments (IDEs) provide software for writing, testing, and debugging code.

Web Technology - Web Development

• HTML(Hypertext Markup Language) is the markup language for creating the structure of web pages.
• CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) is the stylesheet language for controlling the visual presentation of web pages.
• JavaScript is for adding interactivity and dynamic content to websites.

Web Technology - Web Servers

• Apache and Nginx delivers web content to users' browsers.
• Node.js is javaScript runtime for server-side development.

Web Technology - Databases

• MySQL, PostgreSQL, and MongoDB store and retrieve data for web applications.

Web Technology - Frameworks and Libraries

• React, Angular, and Vue.js are JavaScript libraries/frameworks for building interactive user interfaces.
• Django, Ruby on Rails, and Flask are web development frameworks for building robust web applications.

Internet

• A network of networks connecting computers globally.
• Enables the sharing of information and communication from anywhere with an Internet connection.

Internet Infrastructure

• Internet infrastructure is needed to transposed eCommerce into reality in network.
• Multimedia superhighway which provides technical support for activities on internet.
• It include gateways, network interface card and hubs and switches.

Important Components of Internet Infrastructure

• Network interface card (NIC) allows a computer to be joined to a local area network.
• Hub connects devices in a network, while a switch filters network traffic for communication within the network.
• Router acts as a barrier between the Internet and devices on a home network.
• Firewall monitors and filters network traffic based on security policies.
• Gateway transfers data among networks and serves as an entrance to another network; it is the ISP connecting the user and firewalls.

Communication and Web Technologies

• The exchange of information through speech, signs, symbols, or text is called Communication.
• Web Technology refers to the tools and techniques for communication between different types of devices over the internet.
• A basic example is client-Server technology.

The Worldwide Web (WWW)

• The largest component of cyberspace, invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.
• Provides a system for organizing, sharing, and accessing information, using websites and web pages, functioning on three core technologies.
• HTML structures content on the web.
• HTTP governs how data is transmitted over the web.
• URL is the unique address for each web page or resource on the internet.
• The web has evolved from static to dynamic, interactive content that is driven by web technologies like javascript, CSS and modern frameworks.

Internet versus WWW

• The Internet is a worldwide network of networks; the WWW stands for World Wide Web.
• The Internet connects any computer to any other at any place, but the WWW is a collection of information accessed via the internet.
• The Internet is the infrastructure, and WWW is the service on top of that infrastructure.
• Internet can be viewed as a big book-store, the Web as a collection of books.
• The Internet is primarily hardware-based, while the WWW is more software-oriented.
• The Internet originated in the late 1960s; the WWW was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in 1989.
• The internet is the superset of WWW, which is a subset of the internet.

The Advent of the Internet

• Development started in the late 1960s with ARPANET, funded by the U.S. Department of Defense.
• Initially for communication between government and academic institutions.
• The Internet grew rapidly after the introduction of the World Wide Web and commercial ISPs in the 1990s.
• The internet has transformed communication, education, business, and entertainment.

Internet Infrastructure for Data Transfer and Governance

• The Internet's infrastructure is built on a global network of interconnected routers, servers, and data centers.
• Key components ISP's provide internet access to users, businesses and organizations.
• Backbone Networks are large, high-speed data networks that connect various ISPs.
• DNS translates human-readable domain names into IP addresses.
• Submarine Cables are undersea fiber-optic cables connecting continents.
• Governance of the internet is decentralized, managed by organizations like ICANN for IP addresses/domain names, IETF for internet standards, and W3C for web standards.

The Internet Society

• ISOC is a global organization founded in 1992.
• Its mission is to promote the open development, evolution, and use of the Internet for the benefit of all.
• ISOC focuses on Internet Governance.
• ISOC promotes Digital Inclusion.
• ISOC promotes Cybersecurity and Privacy.

Cyberspace Regulation

• Cyberspace is regulated by laws, social norms, market forces and codes.
• Cyber space regulations are implemented or codified in the software by the code writers, requiring the constant certification of identity.
• (i) Privatization; The state can use a private body to achieve goals it could not get directly and implement what that body wants through mandatory technological arrangements.
• For example, to make ISPs liable for copyright violations by their subscribers to create a private police force.
• (ii) Propertization extends and protects intellectual property rights online, which will produce many technical methods of enforcement.

Cyberspace Regulations - Technological Controls

• In this regulatory feature, the system is designed so that the hardware has desired regulatory features.
• Digital texts and music can be encoded to a particular person.
• Detection devices could become built into players, so that they cannot play other peoples music.
• Unique identifiers could be built into computer chips, so that a person's computer would broadcast a universal ID with an associated set of legal characteristics as roamed in the net.

Cyber Security

• Cyber Security is protection against the criminal or unauthorized use of electronic data.
• Preventative methods are used to protect information from being attacked.
• Cyber security provides protection from critical attacks.
• It helps in browsing safe websites and provides security of data in cyber space.

Cyber Security Issues and Challenges

• Data Confidentiality ensures that data is only accessible to authorized personnel.
• Authentication challenges are addressed through encryption to protect data.
• Data Integrity challenges are met using modification controls.
• Data Availability and System Configuration issues are tackled with auditing and validation processes, and to ensure time of server, also to prevent non-repudiation
• Cybersecurity faces challenges due to evolving digital landscape.
• Advanced Persistent Threat (APT) are the infiltration and undetected stays within secured systems.
• Ransomeware are cybercriminals locking companies of there data.
• Zero-Day Exploits are vulnerabilities softwares exploited before a patch is issued.
• Shortage of Cybersecurity Talent affects IT due to the global shortage of qualified cybersecurity professionals.
• Legacy Systems impact security due to the fact that older systems may not be designed to accommodate modern security protocols.
• Organizations must comply with a variety of data privacy regulations such as the GDPR.
• A.I and Automation are the tools used by Cybercriminals to improve the efficiency and scale of attacks.
• Data breaches and legal consequences affect IT due to financial damages.
• Supply Chain Attacks are third-party partners used to infiltrate clients system.
• Organizations must balance security with budget and IT must Invest in the right technologies wisely.
• Attacks also impact IT via Phishing via social engineering, which uses deceptive tactics.
• Poor Password Hygiene effects IT due to weak passwords and password reuse remain significant issues for cybersecurity.
• Governance, geopolitical tensions and cross-border cybercrime affects IT.

CIA

• CIA refers to Confidentiality, Integrity and availability in cybersecurity.

CIA - Confidentiality

• Access to sensitive information of a company must be limited to authorised personnel.
• In relates to specific data relating to data, financial information, employees, customer, and stake stakeholders.
• Information needs to be organised into separate levels based on importance.
• Information would be harmful if in the wrong hands.
• Data should be stored in robust database and protected by software along with antivirus encryption, endpoint security, and intrusion detections systems (IDS).
• Password security needs to be implemented and importance of protection should be thought to employees.

CIA - Integrity

• Measures need to be in place to maintain its integrity and untampered consistency of data.
• Measures need be in place to ensure information cannot be edited or altered during transit, storage, or any part of the lifecycle.
• Incorrect data can cause processing problems having an impact to the integrity of data as well as the company's reputation.
• Human error can result in tampered data or incorrect information can be inputted incorrectly.
• Companies have to also ensure security measures in the process if an average of 200 days can be identified with breach.
• Security measures must be taken to ensure authorization, security, encryptions digital certificates or signatures for inputting the right security standards
• Databases should show Eventlogs and record all modifications and version history.

CIA - Availability

• The security measures must not compromise the accessibility of information by authorized users.
• Storage should be available to transfer data to necessary parties and be kept up-to-date.
• This also refers to a data storage and recovery plan in place to ensure your data is safe and available through the use of third party secure data storage.
• Back up plans are needed to ensure data can still be accessed.

Domain Name System (DNS)

• A DNS is a collection of domain names and their associated IP addresses.
• A cybercriminal could infiltrate a DNS system to send users via fake malicious links, harvest data.
• They can also steal data, hijack websites, inundate servers.
• DNS Security must be designed to prevent attacks and malicious behaviour by using a DNS.

DNS security work

• Can keep a DNS requests and IP address secure.
• Policies should be put in place to highlight a boost security.
• It prevents callbacks from DNS servers and helps the DNS from being taken over and abused.

Internet vs Cyberspace

• The internet is the global network of interconnected computers.
• Cyberspace refers to the virtual environment or "space".
• The internet is the infrastructure for cables, routers and protocols.
• Cyberspace include websites, social media, and online games.
• The internet a highway system to connects different place.
• Cyberspace explore and engage with through the internet.
• The internet is the "system" that connects everything.