Understanding Carbohydrates

• Carbohydrates contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general formula CnH2nOn, like C3H6O3.
• Hydrogen and oxygen are present in carbohydrates in a 1:2 ratio, similar to water, represented as Cn(H2O)n.
• Acetic acid (CH3COOH, C2H4O2) and lactic acid are examples of substances with the formula CnH2nOn that are not carbohydrates.
• Rhamnose, amino sugars, and deoxy sugars are carbohydrates which do not follow the CnH2nOn. general formula.
• Carbohydrates are aldehyde (CHO) or ketone (C=O) derivatives of polyhydric alcohols (more than one OH group).
• Alternatively, carbohydrates can be compounds that yield these derivatives upon hydrolysis.

Importance of Carbohydrates

• They are the primary energy source.
• Carbohydrates act as important structural components in animal and plant cells.
• They are essential components of nucleic acids, free nucleotides, and coenzymes.
• In nature, major antigens are carbohydrates. For example, blood group substances.
• Carbohydrates play a biological role in hormones, hormone receptors, and enzymes.

Classification of Carbohydrates

• Based on the number of sugar units, carbohydrates are classified into three types.
• Monosaccharides: They contain one sugar unit, they are the simplest form of sugars, and acids cannot hydrolyze them. They are the end products of carbohydrate digestion.
• Oligosaccharides: Containing 2 to 10 monosaccharide units per molecule, they yield monosaccharides after acid hydrolysis.
• Polysaccharides: These contain more than 10 monosaccharide units per molecule and produce monosaccharides on acid hydrolysis.

Monosaccharides

• Monosaccharides are classified based on the number of carbon atoms and the functional chemical group.
• They are classified based on the count of carbon atoms into Trioses, tertroses, pentoses, and hexoses
• They consist of Aldoses (sugars containing an aldehyde group) and Ketoses (sugars containing a ketone group) based on their functional group.

Sugar Derivatives

• Amino sugars or Sugar amines are sugar derivatives.
• Another sugar derivative is Deoxy sugars.
• Sugar acids, formed by the oxidation of sugars, are one more sugar derivative.
• Sugar alcohols, which arise from the reduction of sugars, are also sugar derivatives.

Amino Sugars (Sugaramines)

• Amino sugars are created by replacing the OH group on C2 with an amino group (NH2).
• Glucosamine has the sole sugar derivative present in the exoskeleton of insects, chitin, and is also called chitosamine.
• Glucosamine can be changed through acetylation into N-acetyl glucosamine and then sulfated into sulfated glucosamine.

Biochemical Importance of Amino Sugars

• Glucosamine enters the structure of the exoskeleton of insects. Due to this, it is called chitosamine.
• Mucopolysaccharides, such as hyaluronic acid (containing N-acetyl glucosamine), and heparin (containing sulfated glucosamine) includes these amino sugars.

2-Galactosamine, or Chondrosamine

• It is the main sugar derivative in chondroitin sulfate and can undergo acetylation or sulfation.
• Sulfate-containing mucopolysaccharides like chondroitin sulfate and glycolipids includes this sugar.

3. Mannosamine

• Mannosamine enters the structure of antibiotics such as erythromycin, along with other amino sugars.
• All these components are crucial for the activity of these antibiotics.

4. Sialic acid

• Sialic acids (SA) are derivatives of neuraminic acid (Neu) and are 9-carbon monosaccharides with a carboxyl group located at the anomeric carbon atom C-2.
• The term "sialic acid" originates from the Greek word "σάλιο" (saliva).
• Glycoproteins and glycolipids, like gangliosides, include Sialic acid in their structure.
• Gangliosides are molecules of glycosphingolipid (ceramide and oligosaccharide) with an additional sialic acid linked in a sugar chain.

2. Deoxysugars

• Sugar molecules with an OH group replaced by H in one of three places.
• At C2, deoxy sugars, such as deoxyribose in DNA, are produced.
• At C6, methyl pentoses (Methylose) are produced, for instance, L-galactose yields L-fucose, and L-Mannose yields L-rhamnose.
• L-rhamnose and L-fucose are involved in glycoprotein structures, e.g., blood group substances.

Glycosides

• Glycosides result from the reaction of the anomeric carbon's OH group with another OH group or an NH2 group from a different compound.
• The other compounds involved may be another sugar named glycan, or they may be a non-sugar named aglycan.
• Glycosides receive their names based on the type of sugar involved, such as glucose forming glucosides and galactose forming galactosides.

Examples of Glycosides

• 1-Glycosides contain an R-O-R (ether) linkage
• Examples of this include disaccharides like lactose and maltose, as well as α- and -methyl-glucosides.
• Digitalis alkaloids: These have sugar combined with a steroid nucleus (Aglycon) and are in some plants. Digoxin is used in cases of heart failure.
• Phloridzin exists in some plants and induces diabetes in lab animals.
• Cerebrosides or glycolipids: Here, galactose is the sugar, and sphingosine base of lipids is the non-sugar part. These are key in nerve cell structure.
• Saponins: They are glycosides which lower surface tension, dissolve erythrocyte membranes, and affect permeability. They create detergent-like foams.
• Antibiotics: Some antibiotics are glycosides such as streptomycin.

2-Glycosides Containing (R–N–R)

• These consist of Nucleotides where ribose or deoxyribose is bound to purine and pyrimidine bases.
• Glycoproteins also consists of this type of glycosides.

II. Oligosaccharides

• Disaccharides are a form of oligosaccharides.

• 1- Reducing Disaccharides:

• A. Maltose (malt sugar) consists of 2 -glucose units, linked by an -1,4-glucosidic linkage.

• Maltose is created during digestion of starch. It gets hydrolyzed by acids and the maltase enzyme in the human small intestine.

• B) Isomaltose, -1,6-glucosidic -glucose joined by It, forms a linkage with glucose.

• Isomaltose is not found in nature.. It is produced by the amylase enzyme during the digestion of starch.

• C) Lactose is formed when -galactose and -glucose are linked by a -1,4-glucosidic linkage, where -galactose is contributed by C1 while -glucose is from C4.

• This is mil sugar with aldehyde to create a reducing disaccharide and the lactosazone is creating (puff-like). It can be digested by glucose and galcatose. For example, women excrete this in urine after and during pregnancy

• D) Cellobiose forms from two -glucose molecules with a the -1,4-glucosidic linkage.

• The building block of cellulose, it’s also a reducing disaccharide that cannot fermnt or it is indigestible.

• It also shows mutarotation or have alpha and beta forms.

2. Non-reducing Disaccharides

• Common table sugar, cane sugar, and molasses are formed when -glucose links with -fructose using an --1,2-linkage, making it a fermentable sugar.
• This linkage involves anomeric carbons (C1 of glucose and C2 of fructose), meaning it's a non-reducing sugar and it is impossible to form osazone. it does not facilitate mutarotation and without alpha and beta forms
• A) Sucrose is a dextrorotatory sugar however a reaction with sucrase or or acid hydrolysis with HCL produces a levorotatory mixture.
• Sucrase is an alternative term for invertase.
• B. Trehalose is formed of 2 α-glucose linked by α-1, 1 glycosidic bonds
• Found in toxic lipids extracted from myobacterium turberculosis
• The primary sugar found in insect hemolymph and in yeast or fungi

Trisaccharides

• Rhafinose presents in molasses. This trisaccharide formed from the unit with glucose, galcatose, and fructose.

Polysaccharides

• They are classified into;
• Homopolysaccharides
• Heteropolysaccharides
• Homopolysaccharides releases only one type of monosaccarhide after a reaction for its hydrolysis process that is specific to a monosaccarhide.
• For example:
• Pentosans = Pentoses, combined with H20
• Hexosans become Hexoses with additional H20
• Hexosans consists of Glucosans
• Glucosans produce glucose only on hydrolysis . For example, starch, dextrins, dextrans, glycogen and cellulose.

Starch

• Starch is when carbohydrates are stored within plants, and not in animals. For example potatoes, sweet potatoes, wheat, and various tubers.
• Within a starch structure amylose is 20 percent, and amylopectin is 80 percent. Amylopectin also forms a colloidal combination when in contact with boiling water.
• Starch components includes the inner and water-soluble section, which create blue, and a straight structure also forms a helix composed of ɑ-glucose
• Amylopectin constitutes the starch exterior and is not water soluble, it becomes red in the presence of iodin and also forms by combining ɑ-glucose units in a ɑ-1,4 glycosidic linkages.
• They undergo branching with ɑ-1,6-glucosidic links, that occurs one every 25–30 units with other molecules

Dextrins

• Produced during starch hydrolysis which include amylodextrin, erythrodextrin
• Distinguished with their color with iodine
• Used as emulsifiers, are sweet tasting
• Starch are easily digested such as rice

Dextran

• Dextran consists of alpha glucose joined together by alpha 1.4, or 1.3 or 1.6 links, and bacteria having sucrose help synthesize the product.
• A colloid is produced and the plasma substitute can replace or restore blood pressure when in danger.
• Dextran ferrous sulfate is an element used to treat anemia and is inserted using intra-muscular.
• Dextran sulfate is also utilized to prevent coagulation or block a substance from clotting

Glycogen

• A form for animals to store carbs, mostly in the liver and muscle. It becomes water soluble, and appears red in iodiine
• In a structure such as amylopectin, it is α-1,4-glucosidic related in the branch, similar to that with amylopectin.
• With glucose 8 to 10 on each branch. and also can be digested

Cellulose

• Key structure and polysaccharide in plants, that does not exist in animals
• Consist of beta glucose creating a linear product and also linked by 1.4 glycosdic links
• Not water soluble
• Significant for herbivorous animals that goes using volatile fat molecules
• Aids bowl movement, vitamins within water and cell volume
• Assists in preventing absorption in body/ blocks toxins from entering the body.

Inulin

• Made of fructose only and in dahlia and onions
• Does not metabloize in kidneys but utilized for kidney operations/functions

Chitin

• Homopolysaccharide where beta acetyl glucoses get related by beta 1.4. glycosidic connection.
• Is a outer of exoskeleton in bugs

Diabetes Mellitus

• Metabolic ailments occur as of glucose levels over sustained life period causing the following indications.
• urination at consistent pace
• hunger and thirst
• Issues such as issues with vessels, stroke, or issues kidney if not addressed to, and blindness

Types of Diabetes: Type One

• Is when beta cells cannot make insulin in enough of a percentage.
• A version for juvenile and triggered by body
• A version for juvenile and triggered using a body
• Auto matter is not confirmed

Types of Diabetes Type Two

• Develop as results of insulin resistance, which fails insulin and is common with people who fail to perform physicals

Gestational Diabetes

• Emerges as expecting mothers obtain insulin, but without any history.
• There is glucose resistance from one and two with curve for health percentage in each of each people