Understanding and Defining Stress

Understanding Stress

• Stress is a reaction to changes needing adjustment across physical, mental, and emotional domains
• "Stress" lacks a precise, universally accepted definition in contemporary use
• Adapting to stress healthily involves stabilizing biological functions and maintaining self-esteem

Historical Context of Stress Research

• Hans Selye's 1956 research on physiological responses to changes in biological systems initiated modern stress studies
• Selye's definition of stress evolved, defining it in 1976 as a syndrome of nonspecific changes in a biological system
• Selye's work was foundational in understanding stress as both a psychological and physiological phenomenon

Definition and Evolution of Stress

• Stress is a state with a specific syndrome involving nonspecific changes in a biological system
• Selye introduced the "fight-or-flight" syndrome to describe the body's immediate response to perceived threats
• Selye's research underscored the importance of physical and psychological stressors in triggering stress responses

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) Stages

• Alarm Reaction Stage: Triggers fight-or-flight physiological responses preparing the body for a stressor
• Stage of Resistance: The body uses alarm stage responses to adapt; successful adaptation may reduce symptoms
• Stage of Exhaustion: Prolonged stressor exposure depletes adaptive energy, potentially leading to diseases like headaches, mental disorders, and cardiovascular problems

Physiological Responses to Stress

• The fight-or-flight response includes increased heart rate, heightened alertness, and release of adrenaline and cortisol
• Selye's experiments with lab animals showed the body's automatic response to physical stressors
• Chronic stress can result in persistent arousal, increasing disease and health complication risks

Implications of Chronic Stress

• The fight-or-flight response was critical for early human survival against predators
• The response was designed for short-term activation and homeostasis, but modern lifestyles often cause prolonged stress responses
• Selye's findings suggest psychological stressors linger, leading to chronic stress, while physical stressors are resolved quickly

Modern Context of Stress

• Stress is often chronic and pervasive in modern society, impacting both mental and physical health
• Inappropriate activation of the fight-or-flight response in non-life-threatening situations can lead to health issues

Definition of Stress as an Event

• Stress can be seen as an event triggering physiological and psychological responses
• Stress necessitates lifestyle adjustments, potentially altering life patterns
• These changes can be positive or negative, emphasizing the impact on an individual's state

Role of Life Events in Stress

• Life events can be categorized by their potential to cause stress, affecting resources and coping
• The emphasis is on how change from a normal life pattern can lead to stress
• Examples include marriage, divorce, job changes, and health issues

Social Readjustment Rating Scale (SRRS)

• Holmes and Rahe originally developed the SRRS in 1967; Miller and Rahe updated it in 1997
• The SRRS assigns numerical values to life events based on stress-inducing potential, quantifying stress levels
• The updated SRRS reflects modern stressors for a more relevant stress assessment

Gender and Age Differences in Stress Response

• Women report higher stress from life events compared to men according to Miller and Rahe's 1997 research
• Unmarried people tend to score higher on stress assessments than their married counterparts
• Younger people perceive life events as more stressful than older people, indicating a generational difference

Implications of High Stress Levels

• A high score on the Recent Life Changes Questionnaire (RLCQ) indicates increased susceptibility to illness
• The RLCQ assesses stressors over six months or one year, with concern thresholds at 300 LCUs for six months or 500 LCUs for one year

Link Between Stress and Illness

• Research suggests a link between stress overload and illness, although the relationship's exact nature is still unclear
• Stress overload may predispose or precipitate illness, necessitating further study
• Individual stress reactions vary, influenced by personal perceptions of life events

Individual Differences in Stress Perception

• Stress response variability is related to how individuals perceive life changes, implying stress is subjective
• Personality traits, past experiences, and mental health status influence perception

Critiques of Traditional Stress Assessment Tools

• Life change questionnaires often ignore individual stress perceptions, focusing on events only
• These tools don't account for cultural differences impacting the stress experience
• Coping strategies and support systems, crucial for understanding stress responses, are not considered

Amirkhan's Stress Overload Tool

• This tool assesses stress overload, emphasizing individual perception and de-emphasizing event occurrence
• 30 questions starting with "In the past week, have you felt..." address various emotional states
• It allows for a personalized understanding of stress, considering the individual's subjective experience

Adaptations in Stress Assessment Tools

• Artani et al. (2017) adapted the RLCQ for urban Pakistan communities, acknowledging unique stressors there
• The adaptation included a category for environmental stressors, recognizing distinctions between developing and developed nations
• Poverty, lawlessness, and political instability are significant stress contributors in these communities

Theoretical Framework of Stress

• Stress is a transaction between an individual and their environment, encompassing internal and external factors
• Stress is influenced by individual perceptions and coping mechanisms, not just external stimuli
• Disease etiology aligns with this approach, where external factors and individual susceptibility matter
• The transactional model emphasizes context; stressors may affect individuals differently based on unique characteristics

Internal and External Variables

• Internal: personality, coping styles, and experiences that shape how an individual perceives stress
• External: environmental stressors, work pressure, social relationships, and economic conditions
• The interaction between these variables determines the individualized stress response

Lazarus and Folkman’s Theory of Stress

• The 1984 theory states stress as a psychological product of interaction between the individual and their environment
• Stress occurs when an individual feels the demands of a situation outweighs their resources and threatens well-being
• The theory emphasizes the subjective nature of stress, where differing perceptions affect reactions to the same event

Definition of Precipitating Events

• A precipitating event is a stimulus from the internal or external environment
• Whether an event is stressful depends on an individual’s cognitive appraisal

Cognitive Appraisal Process

• Cognitive appraisal is evaluating significance in relation to well-being
• It involves primary and secondary appraisal
• Primary appraisal assesses threat, challenge, or benign factors; secondary appraises available resources to cope

Primary Appraisal

• Introduced by Lazarus and Folkman (1984), it is how an individual initially evaluates an events significance
• Three types: irrelevant, benign-positive, and stressful
• Irrelevant Appraisal: Events considered insignificant
• Benign-Positive Appraisal: Events perceived as beneficial and leading to positive emotional responses
• Stressful Appraisal: Includes harm/loss, threat, and challenge, which each cause emotional responses and coping needs

Types of Stressful Appraisals

• Harm or Loss: Refers to damage that's already happened, triggering grief or regret
• Threat: Refers to anticipated harm or loss that may occur in the future, causing anxiety and fear
• Challenge: Focuses on the potential for growth, producing emotions like eagerness

Interaction of Appraisals

• Challenge and threat appraisals can exist together, leading to complex emotional responses with positive and negative feelings
• Coping mechanisms and stress responses are influenced by the balance between perceived challenge and threat

Secondary Appraisal

• Secondary appraisal happens after primary ones and involves evaluation of personal resources and coping
• Key questions during secondary appraisal are:
• Which coping strategies are available?
• Will the option I choose be effective?
• Do I have what it takes to bring that strategy to fruition?

Understanding Predisposing Factors

• Predisposing factors, which shape an individual's stress perception and response, determine whether responses are adaptive or maladaptive

Types of Predisposing Factors

• Predisposing factors include genetic influences, past experiences, and existing conditions
• Every type has its own contribution to an individual's stress response and coping mechanism

Overview of Genetic Influences

• Genetic includes traits, resilience, weaknesses, and conditions passed down from family

Role of Past Experiences in Stress Response

• Learned behaviors and copying strategies formed from past experiences affect the current responses to stress
• Exposure can either enhance stress resilience or cause stress sensitivity
• Alternatively, someone who has gone through a trauma may have maladaptive responses in relation to learned helplessness

Overview of Existing Conditions

• Physical and psychosocial state of the individual affects their stress levels and coping mechanism
• The condition can either help or prevent the individual from thriving under stress

Hobfoll's Conservation of Resources Theory

• People are driven to secure, keep and protect the precious resources according to Hobfoll's Theory
• Loss of resources occurs when resources run dry

Implications of the Theory

• When existing conditions exceed an individual's perceived adaptive, capabilities, stress levels soar
• A diminished reserve can significantly increase the odds of becoming vulnerable to future stressors

Understanding Stress Management

• It includes skills and steps used to adapt to stress, and this industry is worthing millions
• Stress management improves well-being and productivity in many ways
• With great mental health and better relationships comes greater resistance to future stressors

Understanding Stress and Coping Mechanisms

• The first step of coping with stress is knowing where triggers stem from and how those triggers make the individual feel
• Analyzing sources can help with coming to the decision to either face or to leave them be
• Enhanced self-awareness combined with mindfulness will give the individual what it takes to discover emotional and physical symptoms of stress
• By the start of 20th century, ancient psychological strategies already emphasized the importance of self-awareness as a way to manage stress

Relaxation Techniques

• Activities such as breathing exercises and sports for example, can bring about relaxation
• Depending on the activity and the person, activities work uniquely for different people
• More information can be found about this in Chapter 11, highlighting how this helps with psychological interventions
• For example, Yoga might be beneficial because it combines elements from both mindfulness and physical activities

Benefits of Meditation

• Can potentially lower blood pressure levels and reduce stress symptoms
• Mindfulness meditations are very useful to reducing anxiety
• By focusing on a single phrase or just breathing alone, mindfulness and meditation can be achieved and mastered
• Study showed that people who practiced and mastered mindfulness reported lower anxiety and the ability to problem solve
• Ancient eastern philosophies helped start foundations for practices which are now a part of modern psychological practices

Mindfulness Practices

• Involves the act of being fully present and engaging with ones feelings as they come and go without judgement
• This involves guided body imagery, body scans and mindful breathing practices
• Writing down thoughts and feelings in a journal can work hand in hand because it allows the individual to show and go over their feelings
• While getting their mind right in a program, journaling helps the individual track their emotional response and stress levels by showing them over time

Role of Interpersonal Communication

• Social Support helps to give the individual an easier time with adapting to stress, talking to people about this type of stuff also alleviates their stress
• A journal to write down feelings can act a therapeutic output as it gives individuals the ability to write down feelings
• Importance of this increased in the 1980s as psychological research began to emphasize social support

Problem-Solving as a Coping Strategy

• The model involves both objectively going over where a specific stressor stems from, and applying a decision making model
• This involves goals such as formulating or assessing facts, creating goals while also studying alternatives and evaluating outcomes

Psychological and Emotional Benefits

• Pets and animals can heavily improve stress responses by providing companionship plus warmth and care from tactile affection
• The act of petting can cause the release of oxytocin, which promotes feelings of warmth and affection that lowers anxiety
• Pets also lower rates of loneliness and overall isolation

Physical Health Improvements

• Dog owners have a higher chance to have a better heart because they are constantly giving them constant walking exercise
• Kids around pets have a higher immunity to pet dander
• Lower levels of stressful hormones have been traced back to just by being around pets and loving their company

The Benefits of Music

• By promoting relaxation and distraction, listening to music alleviates pain
• Helps improve focus and memory for both students and professionals

Physical Health Benefits

• Calming music can help people get to sleep more quickly which overall has linked to better sleep levels
• Blood vessel functions have improved through the use of Music which overall leads to a general decline in future cardiovascular activities
• Overall motor skills have improved through music in stroke rehabilitation patients

Practical Applications and Examples

• Hospitals often integrate music as a pain management tactic
• To illustrate the effect that rhythm has on physical activity, music on playlist are often integrated into exercise programs to enhance both motivation and the overall performance