Types and Structures of Sentences

Sentence Types

• Four main types: declarative, imperative, exclamatory, interrogative
• Declarative sentences: make statements, end in periods
• Imperative sentences: make commands/demands, end in periods (often with implied subject)
• Exclamatory sentences: express strong emotion, end in exclamation points, can also fall into other categories
• Interrogative sentences: ask questions, end in question marks
• Some experts include optative sentences (expressing a wish) but these 4 are standard

Sentence Structures

• A sentence is a group of words expressing a complete thought
• Most sentences have a subject and predicate
• Four basic structures: simple, compound, complex, compound-complex
• Simple sentence: one independent clause, no dependent clauses
• Independent clause: subject and verb, expresses a complete thought, may have modifiers, and a verb object
• Ways to write simple sentences: single subject/verb, single subject/compound verb, compound subjects/single verb, compound subjects/compound verb

Parts of a Sentence: Subjects & Verbs

• Sentences begin with a capital letter
• Sentences end with punctuation
• Sentences express complete thoughts
• Sentences must have a subject
• Sentences must have a verb
• Verbs: action verbs (tell what the subject does) or linking verbs (connect subject to a subject complement)
• Subject complement: renames or describes the subject

Compound Sentences

• Compound sentences: two or more independent clauses joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction
• Independent clause: groups of words with subjects and verbs that express complete thoughts
• Coordinating conjunctions: connect words, phrases, or clauses that are parallel in structure

Nouns

• Nouns: words that denote people, places, things, or abstract concepts (events, ideas)
• Broadest word category in many languages
• Types of nouns:
  • Singular nouns: one person/place/thing
  • Plural nouns: more than one person/place/thing
  • Common nouns: general items (not capitalized)
  • Proper nouns: specific people/places/things (capitalized)
  • Compound nouns: combine two or more words
  • Abstract nouns: intangible concepts (ideas, emotions)
  • Concrete nouns: things identifiable by the senses
  • Collective nouns: groups or assemblies
• Nouns function with other parts (verbs, objects) to create meaning
• Gerunds: verbs used as nouns

Plural Nouns

• Singular and plural forms of nouns
• Most nouns make plural by adding 's'
• Nouns ending in 's', 'sh', 'ch', 'x', 'z' usually add 'es'
• Irregular plural forms: change or no change in spelling

Possessive Nouns

• Possessive nouns: show ownership
• Indicated by apostrophe + 's' (singular)
• Plural possessive nouns: apostrophe after the 's' (if it already ends in 's')
• False possessives: possession of inanimate objects, intangible things

Verb Tenses

• Verbs: words that describe actions
• Verb tense: shows time (present, past, future)
• Present tense: actions happening now or regularly
• Past tense: actions in the past
• Future tense: actions in the future
• Perfect tenses: action completed by a specific time
  • Present perfect: action has been completed
  • Past perfect: action had been completed
  • Future perfect: action will have been completed
• Verb tense errors: inconsistencies in verb tense use

Subject-Verb Agreement

• Subject-verb agreement: subject and verb match in number
• Singular subjects need singular verbs
• Plural subjects need plural verbs
• Compound subjects ("and"): plural verb unless referring to one thing
• Distance, time, money: singular verb
• "Of" construction: noun before "of" determines verb number
• "Of" with "a lot," "some," "all": noun after "of" determines verb number
• Subjects with "or," "either/or," "neither/nor" (singular/plural): Match subject

Pronouns

• Pronouns: words that replace or stand in for nouns
• Types of pronouns: personal, impersonal, reflexive, intensive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative, indefinite
• Subjective pronouns: refer to nouns doing the action
• Objective pronouns: refer to nouns receiving the action
• Pronouns origin: ancient Greece, "in place of name"

Antecedents

• Antecedents: nouns to which a pronoun refers
• Pronoun-antecedent agreement: pronouns and antecedents must match in number
• Indefinite pronouns: use when quantity of antecedent is unknown.
• Vague antecedents: unclear; avoid them
• Implied antecedents: reader understands antecedent without it being named

Appositives

• Appositives: phrases that identify/clarify nouns/noun phrases
• Types: restrictive (no commas, needed to clarify noun); non-restrictive (commas, additional info)
• Use appositives carefully; avoid muddying sentences or creating repetition

Proper Adjectives

• Proper adjectives: adjectives from proper nouns (capitalized)
• Proper noun: specific name for a person or thing (capitalized)
• Adjective: describes a noun or pronoun
• Proper adjectives: conciseness, metaphorical connotations