Questions and Answers
Give an example(s) of Green Algae.
oedogonium, diatoms, desmids
Give an example of Brown Algae.
Sargassum wightii
Give an example of Golden-Brown Algae.
Turbinaria
Give an example of Yellow-green Algae.
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Outline the general characteristic features of named Algae.
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Describe the structure of filamentous Algae.
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Outline the relationship between Pteridophytes and Bryophytes in respect to their similarities and Differences.
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Who is the Greek philosopher who made the first attempt to classify living organisms?
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The present method of classifying and naming living organisms is based on the work of ______________.
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What is the hierarchy of living organisms from the highest to the lowest?
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What is the purpose of Binomial Nomenclature?
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The scientific name of Pawpaw is ______________.
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What is the major difference between the Kingdom Monera and the other four kingdoms?
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What is a characteristic of the Kingdom Plantae?
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What is the difference between Bryophytes and Tracheophytes?
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What is the characteristic of Spirogyra?
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What are the two types of spores produced by the gametophytes of seed plants?
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Which of the following are divisions of Gymnosperms? Select all that apply.
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What is the wood of conifers known as?
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Angiosperms are also known as non-flowering plants.
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The term Protozoa refers to ______ animals of microscopic size.
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Match the following features of a flowering plant with their description:
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What is the function of the flame cell in osmoregulation?
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Which are the three main classes into which Phylum Platyhelminthes is classified?
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Platyhelminthes are bilaterally symmetrical.
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Phylum Annelida is divided into three classes: Polychaeta, Oligochaeta, and ________.
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Match the Platyhelminthes class with its description:
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What are the three methods of asexual reproduction in protozoans?
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Name the distinguishing features of the phylum Porifera.
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How is the body of Leucosolenia structured?
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What are the adaptive features of Leucosolenia?
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How many classes do Coelenterates (Cnidaria) divide into based on the dominant form in their life cycle?
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Platyhelminthes are all free-living organisms.
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What are the typical characteristics of amphibians?
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Which of the following statements is true about reptiles?
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Birds have a _____________ and rounded head with a well-marked neck.
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Mammals are typically nocturnal animals.
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What separates the body cavity of a mammal into two parts?
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How is fertilization in most mammals?
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What organ attaches the young to the mother and provides nourishment in mammals?
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What type of reproduction method do most mammals follow?
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A rabbit's snout is formed anteriorly to form the ______________.
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What is the purpose of the ring of chitinous structures called Setae in earthworms?
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Where is the single female generative or oviduct aperture present in an earthworm?
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Earthworms have a thin, pervious, and highly vascularized body wall for respiration.
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Earthworms excrete waste products with the aid of an organ known as ________.
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Match the following characteristics with the Phylum Mollusca:
- Bilateral symmetry
- Soft unsegmented bodies
- Uses gills and lungs for respiration
- Muscular foot
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What is the main function of the mantle in Mollusca?
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Which class of Mollusca includes examples such as Octopus and Nautilus?
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Gastropods exhibit a variety of feeding habits.
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Arthropods possess an exoskeleton made of ________.
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Match the following classes of Arthropoda with their examples:
- Crustacean
- Insecta
- Arachnida
- Myriapoda
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What makes the Arthropods a successful group of animals?
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What are the characteristic features of Phylum Echinodermata?
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How many classes are there in Phylum Echinodermata?
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Echinoderms have olfactory organs.
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What are the adaptive features of Starfish for ecological adaptation?
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State functions of the water vascular system in Echinoderms.
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What is the main adaptation of bony fish for osmoregulation?
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Water is a _ medium than air for active aquatic animals like fish.
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What are the structural adaptations of fish for life in water?
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What are the characteristic features of amphibians?
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How many chambers does the heart of an amphibian typically have?
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Study Notes
Classification of Living Organisms
- Aristotle (384-322 BC) attempted to classify living organisms, while Linnaeus (1707-1778) developed the present method of classification.
- The study of classification is known as taxonomy or systematic.
Hierarchy of Living Organisms
- The hierarchy consists of:
- Kingdom
- Phylum or Division (Plants)
- Class
- Order
- Genus
- Species
- Each kingdom is split into smaller groups, and these groups into even smaller groups.
Binomial Nomenclature
- It is a standard system to name living organisms using two names: genus and species.
- The genus name begins with an initial capital letter.
Kingdoms
- Initially, Linnaeus classified all living organisms into two kingdoms: Plants and Animals.
- Later, Whittaker proposed the five-kingdom classification:
- Monera
- Protists
- Fungi
- Plantae
- Animalia
Kingdom Monera
- Contains prokaryotes, which are simple, single-celled organisms with no true nuclei.
- Examples include Bacteria, Blue-green algae, and Actinomycetes.
Kingdom Protista
- Contains single-celled, motile or non-motile organisms with a definite nucleus.
- Examples include Chlamydomonas and Amoeba.
Kingdom Fungi
- Non-motile organisms with thread-like structures or hyphae.
- Obtain food through absorption from living or non-living sources.
- Examples include Molds, Mushrooms, and Yeasts.
Kingdom Plantae
- Many-celled, non-motile organisms with chlorophyll that enables them to make their own food through photosynthesis.
- Examples include Mosses, Ferns, Pines, and Seed Plants.
Bryophytes
- Simple, non-vascular land plants that evolved from green algae.
- Show two distinct phases in their life cycle: Gametophyte and Sporophyte.
- Gametophyte produces gametes, while Sporophyte produces spores.
Pteridophytes
- Vascular land plants with two distinct phases in their life cycle: Gametophyte and Sporophyte.
- Sporophyte is the dominant generation, independent of the gametophyte.
- Examples include Ferns.
Algae
- Simple, aquatic plants that show great diversity in size and structure.
- Can be unicellular, colonial, filamentous, heterotrichous, thalloid, or polysiphonoid in form.
- Examples include Spirogyra, Ulva, and Fucus.
Spirogyra
- A green algae that belongs to the family Chlorophyceae and order Conjugales or Zygnematales.
- Forms a tangled mass of filaments floating on stagnant fresh water.
- Has a cosmopolitan distribution.### Sporophytes and Pteridophytes
- Sporophytes have true roots, stems, and leaves, and well-developed conducting tissues (xylem and phloem), which are absent in bryophytes.
- Some Pteridophytes are heterosporous, while all bryophytes are homosporous.
- In Pteridophytes, the plant body is not divided into root and shoot systems, whereas in flowering plants, the plant body is differentiated into distinct root and shoot systems.
- Vascular bundles are less developed in Pteridophytes compared to flowering plants.
Morphology of Pteris vittata
- Pteris is a widely distributed genus with about 250 species.
- Pteris vittata is a low-level fern that brings out new leaves throughout the year.
- It is a terrestrial, perennial herb with either creeping or semi-erect rhizome covered by scales.
- Roots arise either from the lower surface or all over the surface of the rhizome.
- Leaves are compound in most species, but a few have simple leaves.
- The stalk of the leaf continues as rachis and bears leaflets called pinnae.
Condition for Adaptation
- Sporophytes show a greater degree of complexity in structural organization.
- They are organized into stem, root, and leaves.
- Vascular tissues (xylem and phloem) are developed only in the sporophyte.
- The aerial parts are covered with a layer of cuticle.
- There are stomata on the epidermis for the exchange of gases.
Alternation of Generation
- There is an alternation of distinct generations between haploid gametophyte and diploid sporophyte.
- Gametophyte produces sperm and egg, while sporophyte produces spores.
Seed Plants (Gymnosperm and Angiosperm)
- Seed plants are seed-producing vascular plants, also called Spermatophytes.
- They have well-developed roots, stems, and leaves.
- Seeds contain an embryo that develops from a fertilized egg of a very small gametophyte.
Gymnosperms
- Gymnosperms are classified into four divisions: Coniferophyta, Cycadeophyta, Ginkophyta, and Gnetophyta.
- Conifers are the most important among gymnosperms, characterized by cone-bearing plants with vascular tissue.
- All conifers are woody plants, and most are trees.
- They are frequently dominating plants in their habitats and are of immense value for timber and paper production.
Angiosperms
- Angiosperms are also known as flowering plants.
- They occupy every habitat on earth except extreme environments.
- They can be small herbs, parasitic plants, shrubs, vines, or giant trees.
- They are sources of other important resources, such as medicine and timber.
Terrestrial Adaptation of Vascular Plants (Seed Plants)
- They possess cuticle.
- They do not need immediate aquatic habitat.
- Roots have no cuticle and are made of cellulose and lignin.
- They have vascular tissues (xylem and phloem).
Animal Kingdom (Invertebrates and Vertebrates)
- Invertebrates abound in number, with about 95% of described species being invertebrates.
- They vary in size, shape, and symmetry.
- They show different grades of body organization.
- They have different types of body cavities and body walls.
Phylum Protozoa
- Protozoa are unicellular animals that are microscopic in size.
- They are the simplest of all animal groups.
- They are looked upon as the most primitive form of life.
- They are functionally entire organisms, physiologically balanced, and perform all essential processes of an animal.
Distinguishing Features of Phylum Protozoa
- They are unicellular animals.
- They are microscopic in size.
- They are found in aquatic environments.
- They have locomotory organs, such as pseudopodia, flagella, or cilia.
- Nutrition may be holozoic, holophytic, saprophylic, or parasitic.
- Respiration occurs through the general surface of the body.
- Excretion occurs through general surface or contractile vacuoles.
Morphological Structure of Amoeba
- Amoeba is a member of the class Sarcodine.
- It measures about 0.25 to 0.60 mm in size.
- It has an irregular shape due to the formation of pseudopodia.
- It has a thin, elastic external plasma membrane or plasmalemma.
Habitat of Amoeba
- Amoeba is found in aquatic environments, such as debris from watering troughs, bottom of ponds, and abandoned tanning pits.
Locomotion in Amoeba
- Pseudopodia are associated with ingestion of food and locomotion.
- During locomotion, amoeba forms one or more blunt finger-shaped processes or pseudopodia.
Porifera (Sponges)
- Porifera are multicellular animals that are found widely distributed in both fresh and saltwater.
- They vary considerably in size and shape.
- They have a large number of microscopic pores on the surface of their body through which water passes constantly.
- They have a very large number of pores, called Ostia, in the surface of their body.
Distinguishing Features of Phylum Porifera
- They are asymmetrical animals.
- Well-developed tissues and organs are not present.
- Digestive system is absent, and digestion of food is intracellular.
- The body wall surrounding the central cavity is only two layers: the outer layer (dermal layer) and the inner layer (gastral layer).
- The gastral layer contains flagellated collared cells or choanocytes.
Classification of Porifera
- Porifera is divided into three classes: Calcarea, Hexactinellida, and Demospongia.
- The different kinds of spicules in the wall of Porifera are used in classification.### Ecological Adaptation of Leucosolenia
- Leucosolenia is a small, delicate, branching, colonial marine sponge.
- It is worldwide in distribution and found attached to stones and rocks of sea-shore water.
- The body wall of Leucosolenia consists of two layers (choanoderm) separated by a gelatinous layer of Mesoglea or Mesenchyme.
- The dermal layer is a protective layer.
- The constant movement of flagella in the gastral layer sets up a continuous water current in one direction.
- The Mesoglea contains various cells, including amoebocytes, which:
- Take food from choanocytes and supply it to other cells.
- Carry out intracellular digestion of food and store it.
- Carry out the transport of waste matter.
- Form scleroblasts that produce spicules or sponging fibers, which form the endoskeleton.
- Function as germ cells.
- Leucosolenia shows sensitivity to stimuli, such as contact, chemicals, light, and heat, despite the absence of a nervous system.
- Leucosolenia reproduces through regeneration, asexual reproduction, and sexual reproduction.
Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
- Coelenterates are aquatic, mostly marine, but also some freshwater forms.
- They are radially or bilaterally symmetrical.
- They are diploblastic, with an epidermis and a gastrodermis, and a less cellular or non-cellular, gelatinous mesoglea in between.
- They have no coelom or separate excretory or respiratory system.
- There are two individual forms of coelenterates: polyps and medusae.
Polyp Form
- The polyp is tubular, with an oral end carrying a whorl of tentacles and an aboral end attached to the substrate by the basal disc.
- The polyp is the sedentary, benthic form.
Medusa Form
- The medusa is the free-swimming, umbrella-like, pelagic form, with a mouth at the end of the manubrium on the subumbrellar side.
Classification of Phylum Coelenterata (Cnidaria)
- Hydrozoa: They may be solitary or colonial forms, with asexual polyps and sexual medusae, and are either freshwater or marine. Examples include Hydra and Obelia.
- Scyphozoa: They are solitary medusae, with a reduced polyp stage, and are all marine. An example is Aurelia.
- Cubozoa: They are solitary medusoid forms, with a reduced polyp stage, and are all marine. An example is Carybdea.
- Anthozoa: They are all polyps, solitary or colonial, with gonads that are gastrodermal, and are all marine. An example is the sea anemone.
External Features of Hydra
- Body resembles a narrow elastic tube, closed at one end and open at the other.
- The closed end is known as the foot or basal disc (aboral end).
- There is a conical process, the hypostome or oral cone, in the center of which is situated an irregular or star-shaped mouth.
- There are slender, contractile, and hollow tentacles between 6-10 in number.
- The body may attain a length of 20mm or more when fully extended.
- There may be small hydras known as buds attached to them when food supply is abundant.
Adaptive Features of Hydra
- The foot secretes a sticky substance for anchorage and locomotion.
- Interstitial cells are the chief agents in regeneration, repairs, budding, and reconstructing tissues in growth.
- Nematoblasts help in defense.
- Hydra usually remains attached by its basal disc or foot to objects underwater.
- The movement of Hydra is for capturing prey, responding to stimuli, and locomotion.
- Swimming is facilitated by the wave-like movement of the tentacles.
- Hydra is a carnivorous animal, and egestion is through the mouth.
Phylum Platyhelminthes
- They are bilaterally symmetrical.
- Their bodies are dorsiventrally flattened, known as flatworms.
- They are triploblastic animals, made up of three body layers.
- They lack a body cavity, hence called Acoelomate.
- They have complete reproductive organs.
- The digestive system is absent in some, and when present, has only a mouth but no anus.
- The nervous system is ladder-like, with simple sense organs.
- They have no respiratory, circulatory, or skeletal system.
- They have a proto-nephridial type of excretory system.
Classification of Platyhelminthes
- Turbellaria: Mostly free-living, aquatic, with soft bodies and leaf-like forms. They have cilia on their body and one opening to the gut. Examples include Planaria.
- Trematoda: They are parasitic, lacking cilia, with a cuticle covering the leaf-like body with one or more suckers. Examples include Fasciola hepatica (Sheep Liver Fluke).
- Cestoda: They are endoparasites (internal parasites), having no gut (digestive) system. They are parasites in the digestive tracts of various vertebrates. They are ribbon-like in form, made up of many segments (proglottids) with an anterior scolex carrying suckers and hooks to host tissues.
External Morphology of Fasciola Hepatica (Sheep Liver Fluke)
- Body is soft and pinkish-brown in color.
- It is elongated and dorso-ventrally flattened (leaf-like).
- It appears to be oval in shape, measuring 1.8-3 cm in length and 0.4-1.5 cm in width.
- It has a broad and rounded anterior end of the body and a bluntly pointed posterior end.
- The anterior sucker acts as an anchorial organ for adhesion and ingestion.
- It has a muscular bowel-like ventral or posterior sucker, which is for adhesion only.
- The body has a minute gonopore or genital aperture mid-ventrally, which is little in front of the posterior sucker.
Habitat of Fasciola Hepatica (Sheep Liver Fluke)
- The adult Fasciola hepatica lives in the liver and bile ducts of the primary host, which is the sheep, but it may occur in some other vertebrates such as goat, dog, ox, deer, rabbit, and man.
- The immature life-stages of the fluke occur in a mollusc (snails), Limnea truncatula, which is a secondary or intermediate host.
Structural Adaptation of Fasciola Hepatica (Sheep Liver Fluke)
- The body-wall of the liver fluke is composed of only a cuticle (and musculature) which covers the body as a thick and tough layer, providing protection to the fluke against chemicals of the host.
- Digestive system: It sucks blood, lymph, etc. as food in its alimentary canal due to suctorial pharynx.
- The interlinary caecal distribute them to different parts of the body.
- Excretory system: It has a protonephridial type of excretory system, which is composed of large numbers of excretory cells called flame cells.
Phylum Annelida
- They are mostly aquatic, some are terrestrial.
- They have segmented bodies.
- They have so much benefit on agriculture as they contribute to soil fertility.
- They have chaetae for movement.
- They are carnivorous and hermaphrodites.
Phylum Arthropoda
- They have jointed appendages/feet.
- They have three body segments: head, thorax, and abdomen.
- They have an exoskeleton.
- There are four classes:
- Cheliceriformes (e.g. scorpions).
- Cephalothorax (e.g. spiders).
- Myriapoda (e.g. millipedes and centipedes).
- Hexapoda (e.g. beetles).
- Crustacea (e.g. crabs, crayfish, and barnacles).
- Insects are the basic factor in plant pollination.
- They develop metamorphosis, complete/partial metamorphosis, egg --- larva --- pupa --- adult.
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This quiz covers different types of algae, including green, brown, golden-brown, and yellow-green algae, as well as their characteristic features and structures. Test your knowledge of these aquatic organisms!
