Tughlaq Empire Disintegration

• The Tughlaq Empire disintegrated due to several factors including the policies of Muhammad and Firoz Tughlaq, weak rulers, and Timur's invasion.

Causes of Disintegration

• Muhammad Tughlaq's policies, caused economic strain, alienated people, and dissatisfaction among provincial governors
• Firoz Tughlaq couldn't repair the damage done by his predecessor; his lenient policies and religious intolerance further weakened control
• A centralized monarchy required strong leadership; weak rulers became puppets of nobles and couldn't control the vast territory
• Military power diminished under weak rulers, and the army lost its ability to maintain control.
• Incompetent successors of Firoz Tughlaq faced frequent rebellions throughout the empire.
• Timur's invasion was the final blow, causing chaos and leading governors to declare independence.

Rise of Vijayanagar Kingdom

• Harihara and Bukka founded the Vijayanagar Kingdom in 1336.
• Muhammad Tughlaq's capital shift created a power vacuum, benefiting Vijayanagar.
• The Bahmani and Vijayanagar kingdoms became independent during Tughlaq’s reign.

Krishnadeva Raya

• Krishnadeva Raya reigned from 1509 to 1530, a successful military leader.
• He subdued vassals, captured Raichur Doab, and defeated Gajapati Prataparudra of Orissa and the Bijapur Sultan.
• He expanded the kingdom and maintained friendly relations with the Portuguese, allowing them to build forts at Bhatkal.
• He was a patron of Telugu literature, authored Amuktamalyada, and built temples like Hazara and Vittalaswami.

Battle of Talikota (1565) and Administration

• Instability followed Krishnadeva Raya's death in 1530.
• Rama Raya, a minister, interfered in the Bahmani sultanates' affairs; a confederation of Bahmani sultanates defeated Vijayanagar.
• The capital city was destroyed.
• The king served as the highest judicial authority.
• The kingdom was divided into six provinces governed by governors.
• Revenue collection from land and trade was a primary focus.

Society and Art & Architecture

• Women held high status, participating in politics, literature, and martial arts.
• Brahmins had influence in social, religious, and political spheres.
• Hazara and Vittalaswami temples are notable architectural examples.
• The ruins at Hampi represent the empire’s past glory.

Decline of Vijayanagar

• Constant wars with Bahmani sultanates and Rama Raya’s interference led to the downfall.
• The Battle of Talikota resulted in the fall of the capital.

The Medieval Period & Christianity

• The European medieval period spans from 600 to 1500 AD
• Christianity follows the teachings of Jesus Christ.

Jesus

• Jesus was born in Bethlehem around 4 BC and was of Jewish origin.
• His life is recorded in the Gospels, and he noticed a gap between the rich and poor.
• His teachings included the Golden Rule plus emphasis on love, forgiveness, and kindness.
• Key teachings include the brotherhood of all men under God, as well as the importance of loving neighbors, forgiving enemies, and avoiding greed and revenge.
• Image worship, rituals, and ceremonies were discouraged in favor of sincerely loving God.

Jewish Opposition, Crucifixion, and Resurrection

• Jesus faced opposition from Jews for healing and challenging Moses’ Code of Conduct.
• He was considered the Messiah and accepted Gentiles into God’s kingdom.
• He was tried by Pontius Pilate and crucified around 30 AD at 33 years old.
• The empty tomb three days after his death is commemorated as Easter

###The Roman Empire vs. the Christians

• Christians faced persecution, and were criticized for not partaking in imperial rituals or festivals.
• Nero blamed Christians for the fire in Rome in 67 AD, leading to mass executions.
• St. Paul was put to death.

Galerius, Constantine & Holy Roman Empire

• Galerius issued the Edict of Toleration in 311 AD.
• Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, making Christianity the official religion.
• The Holy Roman Empire emerged.

Decline

• Barbarian invasions by Goths, Vandals, and Franks contributed to the decline.
• The Roman Empire split into West and East in 395 AD.
• The Western Roman Empire fell in 476 AD.
• Eastern = Byzantium, capital Constantinople, ended 1453 (Turks).
• Western Europe entered the Dark Ages

Crusades

• In the 11th century, Turks captured Jerusalem and Christians initiated the Crusades.
• Eight wars occurred between the 11th and 13th centuries, which prepared the way for the Renaissance
• They fostered trade contacts and the introduction of gunpowder.
• They ultimately contributed to the decline of feudalism.

Monasteries

• Monks devoted themselves to Jesus’ teachings and helping the downtrodden.
• Peter was the First Pope and Paul established churches.
• St. Anthony of Thebes founded monasticism, and the head of a monastery was called an Abbot.
• Missionaries spread the religion.
• St Basil created a Code of Conduct (379 AD) and St. Augustine gave sermons (5th cent.).
• Nuns lived in nunneries or convents.

Impact

• Centers of education for Theology, Philosophy, Grammar, Logic, Rhetoric, Arithmetic, Astronomy, and Music.
• Monasteries preserved ancient literature and spurred a revival of learning before 1453.
• They helped the needy.
• Friars were travelling monks who introduced dramas (miracles and morality) and plays

Corruption & Martin Luther

• Large land donations led to monks owning large estates and corruption.
• Service of mankind became greed and exploitation.
• Martin Luther, a German Friar, questioned teachings and practices.
• He led the Reformation Movement.

The Constitution

• The Cabinet Mission in 1946 proposed the Constituent Assembly.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was Chairman and B. R. Ambedkar was Drafting Committee Chairman.
• The assembly had 385 members, later reduced to 308.
• It took 2 years, 11 months, and 17 days to complete.
• Enacted on 26 November 1949, and enforced on 26 January 1950.

Written Constitution

• Contains 395 Articles and 12 Schedules plus a Preamble.

Preamble

• States the ideals: "WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having solemnly resolved to constitute India into a SOVEREIGN DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all its citizens: JUSTICE, social, economic and political; LIBERTY of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship; EQUALITY of status and of opportunity; and to promote among them all FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity of the Nation; IN OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY this twenty-sixth day of November, 1949, do HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION."

Ideals - Justice, Liberty, Equality

• Justice means all are equal in law and will get their due.
• Liberty includes Fundamental Rights.
• Equality means freedom and access to education.

Equality, Fraternity & Sovereign

• Equality means no discrimination based on gender, caste, race, religion, place of birth, or social status.
• Fraternity promotes brotherhood and removes social barriers.
• Sovereign means India is independent internally and externally and free from international control.

Socialist, Secular & Democratic

• Socialist aims to eliminate income inequalities and reduce the pay gap, with fair-price shops and financial aid.
• MGNREGA provides 100 days of employment for every rural household.
• Secular means no promotion or restraint of any religion, and no discrimination.
• Democratic means a government of the people, by the people, and for the people, with elections and an independent judiciary.

Republic & Directive Principles

• Republic means the head of state is elected (President, 5 yr term).
• Directive Principles of State Policy aim for a Welfare State with social order and justice, serving as guidelines for policy-framing.