Tribal Societies & Social Change

• Kingdoms rose and fell alongside the flourishing of new arts, crafts, and production in towns/villages.
• Social change varied due to the diverse evolution of societies.
• Society in the subcontinent was already divided by varna rules, accepted by large kingdom rulers.
• The gap between high/low classes and rich/poor widened further under Delhi Sultans and Mughals.

Tribal Societies

• Societies existed that didn't adhere to Brahmana social rules/rituals or have unequal classes.
• These societies were often called tribes.
• Tribes were united by kinship bonds, obtaining livelihood from agriculture or hunting-gathering.
• Some tribes were nomadic, controlling land and pastures jointly, divided by their own rules.
• Many large tribes thrived in forests, hills, deserts, retaining freedom and culture despite clashes.
• Caste-based and tribal societies depended on each other, leading to societal change.
• Contemporary historical information on tribes is limited, with tribal people mainly using oral traditions.
• Historians now use these oral traditions to write tribal histories.
• Tribal people existed in almost every region with varying controlled territories.
• The Khokhar tribe was influential in Punjab during the 13th-14th centuries.
• Kamal Khan Gakkhar, chief of the Gakkhars, became a noble by Emperor Akbar.
• The Langahs and Arghuns dominated Multan and Sind before Mughal subjugation.
• The Balochis were another large and powerful tribe

Clans

• Tribes in the northwest were divided into clans under chiefs.
• Gaddis were a shepherd tribe in the western Himalaya.
• The Nagas and Ahoms dominated the northeast.
• Chero chiefdoms emerged in Bihar and Jharkhand by the 12th century.
• Akbar's general, Raja Man Singh, attacked the Cheros in 1591 but didn't fully subdue them.
• Mughal forces under Aurangzeb captured Chero fortresses and subjugated the tribe.
• The Mundas and Santals lived in Orissa and Bengal.
• Maharashtra and Karnataka were home to Kolis, Berads, and more.
• Kolis also lived in Gujarat.
• Tribal populations of Koragas, Vetars, and Maravars were further south.
• The large Bhils tribe spread across western and central India.
• By the late 16th century, many became settled agriculturists/zamindars, some remained hunter-gatherers.
• The Gonds were found in Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Andhra Pradesh.

Nomads

• Nomadic pastoralists moved long distances with animals, living on milk and pastoral products.
• They exchanged wool and ghee for grain, cloth, utensils with settled agriculturists.
• They bought and sold goods while moving, transporting them on animals.
• The Banjaras were vital trader-nomads, with caravans called tanda.
• Sultan Alauddin Khalji used them to transport grain to city markets.
• Emperor Jahangir noted they carried grain on bullocks and sold it to towns.
• They transported food for the Mughal army, with up to 100,000 bullocks.
• Peter Mundy described Banjaras traveling with families, owning oxen, and trading grain.
• Nomads are wandering people, many pastoralists who roam with flocks/herds.
• Itinerant groups like craftspersons and entertainers travel, practicing occupations.
• Both nomads and itinerant groups often revisit the same places annually.
• Pastoral tribes reared and sold animals like cattle and horses.
• Petty peddlers traveled from village to village, selling wares.
• Mendicants sometimes acted as wandering merchants.
• Castes of entertainers performed in towns and villages.

Society Changes

• New castes or jatis emerged within varnas as the economy and society evolved.
• New castes appeared among Brahmanas.
• Tribes and social groups were taken into caste-based society and given jati status.
• Specialized artisans were recognized as separate jatis by Brahmanas.
• Jatis became the basis for organizing society rather than varna.

Deliberations

• A 12th-century inscription describes deliberations in a sabha of Brahmanas.
• They discussed the status of rathakaras, deciding their occupations, which included architecture, building coaches, temples, and making jewels.
• Among Kshatriyas, Rajput clans became powerful and gradually replaced older rulers.
• Rulers used their wealth to create states.
• The rise of Rajputs was an example for tribal people.
• Many tribes joined the caste system with Brahmana support.
• Leading tribal families joined the ruling class, while others joined the lower jatis.
• Dominant Punjab, Sind, and North-West Frontier tribes adopted Islam early and rejected the caste system.
• The emergence of states is closely linked to the social changes of tribal people.

Gonds

• The Gonds lived in Gondwana and practiced shifting cultivation.
• The large Gond tribe was divided into smaller clans, each with its own raja.
• As Delhi Sultan's power declined, large Gond kingdoms started dominating smaller Gond chiefs.
• The Akbar Nama mentions the Gond kingdom of Garha Katanga with 70,000 villages.
• The administrative system was becoming centralised, divided into garhs controlled by clans.
• Each garh was divided into chaurasi units of 84 villages, which were subdivided into barhots of 12 villages.
• Large states changed Gond society, creating unequal social classes.
• Brahmanas received land grants and became influential.
• Gond chiefs wanted recognition as Rajputs.
• Aman Das, the Gond Raja, took the title Sangram Shah.
• His son Dalpat married Princess Durgawati.
• His son Dalpat passed away early, Rani Durgavati began ruling on behalf of child Bir Narain.
• Garha Katanga became rich by trapping and exporting wild elephants.
• Mughal forces attacked it under Asaf Khan in 1565.
• Rani Durgawati resisted but was defeated and chose death over surrender. The son also died in battle.
• The Mughals seized much booty, annexed the kingdom, and gave part of it to Chandra Shah.
• The Gond kingdoms weakened further and struggled against the Bundelas and Marathas.

Ahoms

• The Ahoms migrated to the Brahmaputra valley from Myanmar in the 13th century and created a state, suppressing the bhuiyans.
• They annexed Chhutiyas and Koch-Hajo kingdoms in the 16th century, subjugating tribes.
• The Ahoms built a large state and used firearms in the 1530s.
• By the 1660s, they manufactured high-quality gunpowder and cannons.
• They faced invasions from the southwest.
• The Mughals under Mir Jumla attacked the Ahom kingdom in 1662.
• Despite being defeated, Mughal control was short lived.
• The Ahom state depended on forced labor called paiks.
• A population census was taken, and each village had to send paiks by rotation.
• People were shifted from populated areas to less populated areas, breaking up Ahom clans.
• By the 17th century, the administration became centralised.
• Nearly all adult males served in the army during wars, and also build dams and irrigation systems.
• The Ahoms also introduced new rice cultivation methods.
• Ahom society was divided into clans or khels.
• Artisans came from adjoining kingdoms given few castes within Ahom society.
• A khel controlled villages, and peasants were given land by their community that even the king could not take away without consent.
• The Ahoms originally worshipped their tribal gods.
• By the 17th century, Brahmana influence increased.
• Temples and Brahmanas were granted land.
• Hinduism became the predominant religion under Sib Singh, though traditional beliefs were kept.
• Ahom society was sophisticated, providing land grants to poets and scholars and encouraging theatre.
• Sanskrit works were translated, and historical chronicles (buranjis) were written, initially in Ahom and then in Assamese.
• Considerable social change occurred interactions between varna-based society and tribal people.
• Resulting in adaptation and change.
• Many tribes adopted diverse livelihoods, merging with caste-based society.
• However others rejected the caste system and orthodox Hinduism.
• Some tribes established large states with well-organized administration that becoming politically powerful. This often led to conflict with larger empires.