Treaty of Versailles & League of Nations

The Peace Treaties

• On November 11, 1918, Germany accepted an armistice, thus ending World War I.
• The Allied side had 5 million dead and 13 million wounded, experienced financial devastation, and France's farmland & towns were destroyed.
• The Central Powers had 3.5 million dead and 8 million wounded.
• Many believed Germany was responsible for the war and should pay.

Treaty of Versailles (June 28, 1919)

• Terms for Germany included restrictions on military, reparations, and territorial losses.
• Germany's overseas colonies were seized.
• Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France, and eastern territory was given to Poland.
• The Rhineland was occupied for 15 years.
• The army was limited to 100,000, with no conscription, air force, or submarines, and the navy was reduced.
• The Saar coalfields were controlled by France, large reparations were to be handed to Allies and Germany had to accept blame (Clause 231).

The League of Nations

• The League of Nations was created because of the Treaty of Versailles, based on President Wilson's idea, and aimed to maintain world peace and prevent wars.
• Covenant of the League of Nations (1919) included Article 8: Reduction of national armaments.
• Article 10: Territorial integrity and political independence protection for all members.
• Article 11: Any war or threat to peace is a concern for the entire League.
• Had a General Assembly which met annually as well as a Council which met more frequently.
• Major powers like Britain, France, Italy, and Japan were Permanent Members.
• Non-Permanent Members were elected from other states.
• Special Organizations included Permanent Court of Justice, Health Organization, International Labour Organization, and Mandates Commission for administering former Ottoman and German territories.
• It had no military force of its own and thus lacked power to enforce decisions.
• Unanimous decisions were required, allowing any member to block action.
• Key nations like the U.S., Germany, and Japan were not members, weakening its effectiveness.
• The U.S. did not join, as Congress refused the Treaty of Versailles.
• Germany, Japan, and Italy left in the 1930s.

The Great Depression

• In October 1929: the New York Stock Exchange collapsed, with $40 billion lost by December 1929
• Investors panicked, leading to a massive fall in share prices
• There was overproduction of goods with too few buyers, both domestic and international.
• Investors borrowed money to buy shares, expecting quick profits, which led to inflated share prices.
• Demand for goods fell, leading to production cuts and massive layoffs.
• Unemployment spread globally, with millions losing jobs.
• Bank closures and widespread poverty.
• The US, as a global economic center, triggered a worldwide depression.

Impact on Germany

• Germany was hit hard as its economy relied on foreign loans, especially for reparations payments.
• By 1932, six million Germans were unemployed, and exports collapsed.

The Great Depression in Australia

• Australia's economy in the 1920s was based on primary product exports and foreign investment.
• High debts to overseas lenders made the economy vulnerable.
• World prices of primary products collapsed, and foreign loans dried up.
• Unemployment reached 30% in 1932 and many workers had only part-time jobs.
• The government raised tariffs to reduce imports, but export prices fell, limiting earnings.

Living Through the Great Depression in Australia

• The wealthy were largely unaffected, and some even profited from the crisis as high society continued with their lifestyles, unaffected by the economic downturn.
• Farmers faced debt and eviction, and many were saved by government relief.
• Workers faced extreme poverty, with some relying on charity for food and sustenance payments ("susso").
• Many people went hungry, and children suffered from malnutrition.
• Unemployment relief work paid less than the basic wage.
• Many families became homeless and lived in makeshift shantytowns.
• People banded together to help each other and protested unemployment and evictions.
• Labor premier Jack Lang wanted to halt interest payments to Britain to help the unemployed, but it was rejected as disloyal to Britain.
• There was a proposal to print more money to stimulate industry, but it was abandoned due to opposition from banks.
• Australian governments agreed to cut costs, including wages and pensions, and raise taxes to increase revenue which became known as the Melbourne Agreement (1931).
• Public works were funded by credit to create jobs.
• Recovery in Australia was slow and mostly driven by the recovery of the world economy.
• By 1939, almost 10% of Australian workers remained unemployed.

Flappers

• Young women in the 1920s embraced a liberated, modern lifestyle.
• They were known for short skirts, bobbed hair, makeup, and behaviors like smoking, drinking, and dancing in jazz clubs.
• They represented independence and challenged traditional gender roles.
• Flappers rejected modest, traditional female behavior and fashion.
• They publicly consumed alcohol, smoked, and embraced sexual liberation.
• They challenged societal expectations around marriage and women's roles.

Drift to Dictatorship in Russia

• The Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 aimed to create a communist society with equality.
• Initially, workers-controlled factories, and land was redistributed to peasants.
• Production slumped, and the Bolsheviks appointed managers while abolishing all other political parties.
• The Bolsheviks fought a Civil War (1918–1921) against White Russians, supported by Britain, France, the US, and Japan.
• After the Civil War, the Bolsheviks crushed a revolt by sailors in 1921 and maintained strict political control.

Stalin's Dictatorship

• After Lenin's death in 1924, Stalin outmaneuvered rivals, including Leon Trotsky, to become the USSR's dictator by 1929.
• Stalin's collectivization policy (1929–1935) merged peasant farms into collective farms, leading to resistance, executions, and 13 million deaths due to starvation.
• Stalin launched Five-Year Plans to boost industry, using forced labor from political prisoners.
• The Great Purge (1936-1938) led to the execution of critics within the Communist Party and the military.
• Stalin's regime was marked by terror, censorship, and propaganda that portrayed him as a god.
• Despite Stalin's horrors, communism still had supporters, especially in capitalist countries with oppressed workers.
• Anti-communism grew, leading to fear and hatred of worker revolts.
• The debate between communism and anti-communism influenced global political conflicts for decades.

The Nature of Fascism

• The Great Depression led to mass unemployment and poverty, creating conditions for the rise of fascism.
• Fascism gained support from those fearing the rise of socialism and communism, particularly among middle-class people.
• Fascism appealed to all social classes but found the most support among the middle class.
• Key features of fascism included extreme nationalism, authoritarian rule, and the suppression of political opposition.

Fascism in Italy

• Italy was the first country where fascists gained power. After World War I, Italy faced rising prices, high unemployment, and nationalist resentment.
• The Fascists, led by Benito Mussolini, used violence, intimidation, and propaganda to gain support, particularly by attacking communists and socialists.
• Mussolini's Blackshirts fought street battles and destroyed opposition, gaining support from middle-class and wealthy Italians.
• In 1922, Mussolini led a march on Rome, and the king appointed him as prime minister.
• Mussolini suspended elections, banned political parties, and became Italy's first fascist dictator, dreaming of recreating the power of ancient Rome.
• Mussolini controlled education and the mass media to indoctrinate the population, using propaganda to cultivate blind obedience.
• Fascist states were often characterized by authoritarianism, militarism, nationalism, and violence.
• They often used terror, censorship, and propaganda to maintain control and suppress opposition.
• Fascists promoted strong leadership and obedience to the state, with leaders often portrayed as infallible figures.

The Nazis Take Power in Germany

• Dolchstosslegende: The "stab in the back" myth, claiming that Germany was betrayed by the democratic government, which undermined the Weimar Republic and fueled resentment.
• Hyperinflation in the early 1920s wiped out savings, causing anger among middle-class Germans.
• The Great Depression (1929) severely impacted Germany, leading to 6 million unemployed by 1932, creating fertile ground for extremist parties like the Nazis.
• In the early 1930s, the Weimar coalition government collapsed due to disagreements over how to address the Depression.
• Nazi Party support grew in the 1930 elections, reaching 37.3% of the vote by July 1932, making them the largest party in the Reichstag.
• President Hindenburg initially refused to appoint Hitler as Chancellor but eventually, Hitler became Chancellor in January 1933 after a right-wing coalition was formed.
• The Nazis advocated for extreme nationalism, anti-communism, and racial purity, especially targeting Jews.
• Lebensraum: The desire for living space for Germans, particularly by conquering non-Aryan territories.
• The Führerprinzip emphasized total obedience to Hitler as the absolute leader.
• After Hitler became Chancellor, the Reichstag Fire in February 1933 allowed Nazis to push through the Decree for the Protection of People and State, limiting freedoms and suppressing opposition.
• The Enabling Act (March 1933) gave Hitler dictatorial powers and enabled his government to bypass the Reichstag and change laws.
• Nazis banned opposition parties, dissolved trade unions, and Nazified education and culture.
• The Night of the Long Knives (1934) saw Hitler eliminate SA leaders and other political rivals, solidifying his control over the army.
• Hindenburg's death in August 1934 allowed Hitler to declare himself Führer, consolidating his absolute control over Germany.

Early Japanese Imperialism

• Japan sought to emulate European powers by building an empire starting in the late 19th century.
• Sino-Japanese War (1894–95): Japan invaded Korea, took Taiwan, and the Ryuku Islands from China.
• Russo-Japanese War (1904–05): Japan gained control of much of Manchuria.
• Annexation of Korea (1910): Japan formally annexed Korea.
• World War I: Japan sided with Allies to gain Germany's territorial rights in China and German colonies in the Pacific.
• Economic hardship during the Great Depression fueled military and nationalist support for expansion.
• Japan used an explosion on the South Manchurian railway in 1931 as a pretext to invade Manchuria.
• By 1932, Japan occupied all of Manchuria, renamed it Manchukuo, and claimed it was independent from China.
• Japan bombed Shanghai and occupied parts of northern China.
• League of Nations condemned Japan's actions in 1933, and Japan withdrew from the League, facing no effective consequences.

Fascist Alliances and the Second Sino-Japanese War

• Japanese ultra-nationalist societies shared similarities with European fascism, emphasizing military devotion, racism, and anti-communism.
• Japan, like European fascists, assassinated political opponents and indoctrinated schoolchildren in extreme nationalist values.
• In 1936, Japan and Germany signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, and in 1937, Italy joined, forming the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo Axis.
• In July 1937, Japan launched a full-scale attack on China, capturing cities like Beijing, Guangzhou, and Nanjing.
• China's Communists and Nationalists, who had been engaged in a civil war since 1927, temporarily united to resist Japan.