Questions and Answers
What is the average percentage of iron in a person’s body weight?
0.006%
What are the three major functions of iron in the body?
Component of hemoglobin and myoglobin that carries oxygen, energy generation, and immune system function
What is the recommended dietary allowance (RDA) of iron for women?
18 mg
What is a major deficiency sign of iron?
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What is the tolerable upper intake level (UL) of iron per day?
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What is the function of zinc in the body?
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What is a major dietary source of zinc?
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What is a major toxicity sign of zinc?
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What is the primary function of copper in the body?
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What is the recommended daily intake of manganese for women?
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What is the primary function of iron in the body?
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What is the term for the iron-containing protein in red blood cells that transports oxygen to tissues?
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What is the term for the iron-containing protein in muscle cells that controls oxygen uptake from red blood cells?
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What is the primary source of iron in the typical American diet?
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What is the term for the forms of iron in meat, including hemoglobin and myoglobin?
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What is the effect of oxalic acid on iron absorption in spinach?
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What is the recommended daily intake of chromium for women?
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What is the effect of selenium deficiency on the body?
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What is the significance of the liver in regulating iron in the body?
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What percentage of iron in foods is absorbed by the digestive tract under normal conditions?
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What is the RDA for iron for adult women between 19 and 50 years of age?
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What is the most common nutritional deficiency in the United States and the rest of the world?
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What is the primary reason for oxygen transport impairment in anemic individuals?
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What is the consequence of iron deficiency anemia on the heart?
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What is the percentage of iron enrichment in grain products that is absorbed by the body?
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What happens to the iron in red blood cells after they die?
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What are the two main contributors to iron losses in the body?
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What is the name of the protein that the liver incorporates iron into for storage?
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What is the estimated number of American children and adolescents who have iron deficiency anemia?
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What is a common cause of iron deficiency anemia, often resulting from serious intestinal diseases, severe physical injuries, and excessive menstrual bleeding?
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How often can healthy people give whole blood, according to the American Red Cross?
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Why are pregnant women at a higher risk of iron deficiency anemia?
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What is a potential consequence of iron deficiency anemia during pregnancy?
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Why do infants and toddlers have higher needs for iron than older children?
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What can contribute to the development of iron deficiency in children?
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Why do total vegetarians have a higher risk of iron deficiency–related disorders?
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What can improve the bioavailability of nonheme iron from plant foods?
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How much iron is lost when donating 1 pint of blood?
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What is the name of the condition where the body accumulates excess iron, and what are its common signs and symptoms?
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What is the purpose of treating Hemochromatosis, and what dietary restrictions should individuals with HH follow?
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What is the story behind the discovery of zinc deficiency, and how does unleavened whole-wheat bread impact zinc bioavailability?
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What factors influence the bioavailability of zinc, and how does the body respond to increased zinc needs?
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What is the nutritional significance of kiwano, and how is it typically consumed?
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How does the absence of leavening in bread impact zinc deficiency, and what dietary habits reduce the likelihood of zinc deficiency?
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What is the significance of Ananda Prasad's discovery of zinc deficiency, and what health problems did it alleviate?
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How does iron accumulation impact the body, and what are the consequences of untreated Hemochromatosis?
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What is the difference in the manifestation of Hemochromatosis between men and women, and what is the prevalence of HH in non-Hispanic white Americans?
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How does vitamin C impact iron absorption, and what dietary advice is given to individuals with Hemochromatosis?
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What is the significance of zinc in wound healing, and what other bodily functions does it support?
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What dietary pattern may lead to zinc deficiency, and how can it be addressed?
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What are the recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for zinc in adult men and women, and which population groups are at risk of zinc deficiency?
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What are the signs and symptoms of zinc deficiency, and how does it affect children and adolescents?
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What is the potential benefit of zinc in reducing the severity and duration of the common cold, and what is the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for zinc?
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What is the significance of zinc in breast milk, and what is the recommendation for breastfed infants?
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What is the role of zinc in DNA synthesis, and how does it support immune system function?
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What are the sources of zinc in the typical American diet, and which food groups provide the most zinc?
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What is the effect of zinc deficiency on adult men, and what are the potential consequences of zinc toxicity?
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What is the significance of zinc in growth and development during pregnancy, childhood, and adolescence, and how does it support healthy skin?
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What is a potential consequence of taking high doses of zinc supplements without a physician's supervision?
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What is the primary role of copper in the body?
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What is the recommended daily intake of copper for adults?
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What is a potential consequence of copper deficiency?
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Why did the FDA warn the public about using certain zinc-containing products in 2009?
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What is goiter, and what is its primary cause?
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What is the form of iodine that the body uses?
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What was the result of the iodine study conducted in Ohio from 1917 to 1922?
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What is the significance of the kidneys in regulating iodide levels in the body?
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What is the primary location of iodide in an adult's body?
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What is the likely cause of iodine deficiency in the PD group, according to the researchers?
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What is the effect of goitrogens on iodine metabolism?
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What is the risk to infants of iodine-deficient women?
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What is the tolerable upper intake level (UL) for iodine?
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What is the effect of radioactive iodine on the thyroid gland?
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Why are people with iodine deficiency more likely to accumulate radioactive iodine in their thyroid glands?
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What is the consequence of iodine deficiency on the thyroid gland?
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What is the global effort to eliminate iodine deficiency?
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What is the significance of cooking vegetables with goitrogens?
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What is the effect of manganese toxicity from contaminated drinking water on the nervous system?
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What is the risk of iodine deficiency in pregnant women?
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What are the four enzymes that require molybdenum as a cofactor?
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What food sources are rich in molybdenum?
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What is the toxicity of excess molybdenum?
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Have there been reported cases of molybdenum deficiency in healthy individuals?
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What is the purpose of giving potassium iodide supplements to people exposed to radioactive iodine?
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What is the effect of long-term consumption of excessive fluoride on bones?
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Why is selenium necessary in the body?
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What are the common sources of selenium in the diet?
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What is the effect of selenium deficiency on the body?
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Why do people living in areas with selenium-deficient soil have a higher risk of certain diseases?
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What is the significance of fluoride in teeth?
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What is the effect of excessive fluoride consumption on teeth in children?
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Why is it important for parents to teach their children proper toothpaste use?
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What are the symptoms of selenium toxicity in livestock?
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What is the UL for selenium per day in the United States?
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What are the signs and symptoms of chronic selenosis?
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What is the percentage of chromium in foods that is absorbed by the digestive tract?
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What is the role of chromium in the body?
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What are the good sources of chromium?
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What are the signs of chromium deficiency?
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What is the function of manganese in the body?
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What are the food sources of manganese?
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Why is chromium supplementation risky?
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What is the AI for chromium per day for young women?
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What are some foods that can inhibit iron absorption, and how can vegetarians minimize this effect?
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Why is it important for vegetarians to consume iron-fortified cereals, and what is the limitation of this approach?
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How can cooking utensils contribute to iron intake, and what is a potential drawback of this?
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What is the goal of treatment for iron deficiency anemia, and what should be addressed in addition to iron supplementation?
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Why did the FDA require warning statements on iron supplement packaging, and what was the result of this regulation?
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What is hereditary hemochromatosis, and how does it lead to iron overload?
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What is the benefit of consuming plant-based foods with vitamin C-rich foods, and provide an example?
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Why is it important to read the Nutrition Facts panel for iron content, and what should be done with this information?
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What is the recommended approach to adding more iron to the diet, and provide an example?
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What is the significance of iron overload, and how can it be caused?
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What is the primary function of the thyroid hormone produced by the thyroid gland?
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Why did cases of goiter caused by iodine deficiency become rare in the United States?
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What is the recommended daily intake of iodine for adults?
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What are some major sources of iodine in the diet?
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Why is it essential to avoid excess sodium from all sources, including sea salt?
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What happens to the thyroid gland when a person's iodine intake is too low?
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Why did iodine intakes decline to marginal or inadequate levels in some Americans, particularly older adults?
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What was the effect of the 'Paleolithic' diet on iodine levels in the study of 49 obese women?
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Why is iodized salt not a good source of iodine for preventing iodine deficiencies in some countries?
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What is a potential consequence of inadequate iodine intake on the thyroid gland?
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Study Notes
Trace Minerals
- Iron (Fe)
- Component of hemoglobin and myoglobin that carries oxygen
- Essential for energy generation, immune system function
- RDA: 18 mg (women), 8 mg (men)
- Good sources: meat, fortified cereals, whole-grain breads
- Deficiency: fatigue, small pale red blood cells, poor immune system function
- Toxicity: intestinal upset, organ damage, death
- Zinc (Zn)
- Component of numerous enzymes
- RDA: 8 mg (women), 11 mg (men)
- Good sources: seafood, meat, whole grains
- Deficiency: skin rash, diarrhea, depressed sense of taste and smell
- Toxicity: intestinal upset, depressed immune system function
- Copper (Cu)
- Promotes iron metabolism, component of antioxidant enzymes
- RDA: 0.9 mg
- Good sources: liver, cocoa, legumes, whole grains, shellfish
- Deficiency: anemia, reduced immune system function, poor growth and development
- Toxicity: vomiting, abnormal nervous system function, liver damage
- Selenium (Se)
- Component of antioxidant system
- RDA: 55 mcg
- Good sources: meat, eggs, fish, seafood, whole grains
- Deficiency: muscle pain and weakness, form of heart disease
- Toxicity: nausea, vomiting, hair loss, weakness, liver damage
- Iodine (I)
- Component of thyroid hormones
- RDA: 150 mcg
- Good sources: iodized salt, saltwater fish, dairy products
- Deficiency: goiter, cretinism
- Toxicity: reduced thyroid gland function
- Fluoride (F−)
- Increases resistance of tooth enamel to cavity formation
- RDA: 3 mg (women), 4 mg (men)
- Good sources: fluoridated water, tea, seaweed
- No true deficiency, but increased risk of tooth decay
- Toxicity: stomach upset, staining of teeth during development, bone deterioration
- Chromium (Cr)
- Enhances insulin action
- RDA: 20-25 mcg (women), 30-35 mcg (men)
- Good sources: egg yolks, whole grains, pork, nuts, mushrooms
- Deficiency: blood glucose level remains elevated after meals
- Toxicity: unknown
- Manganese (Mn)
- Cofactor for certain enzymes, including those involved in carbohydrate metabolism
- RDA: 1.8 mg (women), 2.3 mg (men)
- Good sources: nuts, oats, beans, tea
- Deficiency: none in humans
- Toxicity: abnormal nervous system function
- Molybdenum (Mo)
- Component of certain coenzymes
- RDA: 45 mcg
- Good sources: liver, peas, beans, cereal products, low-fat milk
- Deficiency: none in healthy humans
- Toxicity: rare, from dietary supplements, causes joint pain and other symptoms
Iron Regulation
- Body regulates iron absorption and conservation
- Digestive tract absorbs 5-15% of dietary iron
- Liver incorporates iron into ferritin until needed
- Body can recycle iron from red blood cells
- Iron lost through GI tract, urine, skin, and bleeding
Iron Deficiency-Related Disorders
- Iron deficiency anemia: lack of energy, difficulty concentrating, pale skin, fatigue, weakness
- Causes: blood loss, inadequate dietary iron, inability to absorb iron
- Can lead to premature birth, low birth weight, and heart problems in pregnant women
- Children and adolescents are at risk due to rapid growth rates
- Total vegetarians are at risk due to lower iron intake
Iron Toxicity
- UL: 45 mg/day
- Can cause vomiting, diarrhea, coma, and death
- Iron supplements can interact with certain medications
- Hereditary hemochromatosis: genetic disorder causing excessive iron absorption
- Symptoms: joint pain, fatigue, weight loss, abdominal pain, gray or bronze skin color### Zinc
- Zinc is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in many bodily functions, including immune system function, wound healing, and protein synthesis.
- Zinc deficiency can cause stunted growth, delayed sexual maturation, and impaired sense of taste and smell.
- The signs of zinc deficiency include loss of appetite, diarrhea, hair loss, dermatitis, poor wound healing, and mental slowness.
- Zinc-rich sources include red meat, poultry, seafood, beans, and nuts.
- Vegetarians are at higher risk of zinc deficiency due to the lower bioavailability of zinc from plant-based sources.
- The recommended daily intake of zinc is 8 mg/day for women and 11 mg/day for men.
Copper
- Copper is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in the production of enzymes and connective tissue.
- Copper deficiency can cause anemia, impaired immune function, and poor growth.
- The recommended daily intake of copper is 0.9 mg/day for adults.
- Copper-rich sources include shellfish, nuts, legumes, and whole grains.
- Interference with copper absorption can occur with high intakes of iron or zinc.
Iodine
- Iodine is an essential mineral that plays a crucial role in thyroid function and cell metabolism.
- Iodine deficiency can cause goiter, cretinism, and impaired cognitive function.
- The recommended daily intake of iodine is 150 mcg/day for adults.
- Iodine-rich sources include iodized salt, seafood, dairy products, and some breads.
- Goitrogens, found in raw vegetables, can interfere with iodine metabolism.
Fluoride
- Fluoride is not an essential nutrient but strengthens bones and teeth when ingested in small amounts.
- Fluoride toxicity can cause fluorosis, which affects bones and teeth.
- The primary sources of fluoride are fluoridated water, toothpaste, and dental rinses.
Selenium
- Selenium is an essential mineral that functions as an antioxidant and is necessary for immune system function and thyroid function.
- Selenium deficiency can cause impaired immune function and thyroid function.
- The recommended daily intake of selenium is not established, but selenium-rich sources include nuts, whole grains, seafood, and meats.
- Brazil nuts have very high selenium contents, and excessive consumption can be toxic.### Selenium
- Most Americans' diets meet the RDA for selenium, making deficiency uncommon in the US.
- Selenium deficiency can occur in people with serious digestive tract conditions that interfere with absorption.
- Deficiency reduces thyroid gland activity, depresses immune system function, and may contribute to heart disease and cancer.
- In areas where soil lacks selenium, diets typically contain inadequate amounts, leading to increased risk of cancer and heart disease.
- There is no scientific evidence to support the use of selenium supplements to prevent or treat cancer or CVD.
Selenium Toxicity
- The UL for selenium is 400 mcg/day.
- Selenium toxicity (selenosis) is rare in the US, but can occur from drinking well water with high selenium levels or taking megadoses of supplements.
- Signs and symptoms of chronic selenosis include brittle fingernails, hair and nail loss, garlicky body odor, nausea, vomiting, and fatigue.
Chromium
- Chromium is an essential trace mineral recognized for its importance in human diets only in the past 40 years.
- Chromium plays a role in maintaining proper carbohydrate and lipid metabolism.
- The body absorbs only 0.4-2.5% of chromium from foods, with the remainder excreted in feces.
- Vitamin C and niacin enhance chromium absorption.
- Chromium helps regulate blood glucose levels by enhancing insulin's action on cell membranes.
Sources of Chromium
- Meat, whole-grain products, yeast, fruits, and vegetables are good sources of chromium.
- The amount of chromium in plant foods reflects the chromium content of soils where crops are grown.
- Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are good sources of chromium.
Dietary Adequacy and Deficiency
- The adult AIs for chromium are 25 mcg/day for young women and 35 mcg/day for young men.
- Well-balanced diets typically contain these amounts of chromium.
- Chromium deficiency signs include impaired glucose tolerance and elevated blood cholesterol and triglyceride levels.
Chromium Toxicity
- No UL has been set for chromium, as the form in foods has not been shown to produce toxicity.
- The long-term safety of taking various chromium supplements is unknown, making supplemental chromium potentially risky.
Manganese
- Manganese is an important component and activator of many enzymes in the body, involved in wound healing, metabolism, bone and cartilage formation, and antioxidant function.
- Food sources of manganese include leafy vegetables, whole grains, nuts, and tea.
- Manganese deficiency is rare in humans and interferes with reproduction, growth, and metabolism in animal studies.
- Overconsumption of manganese can cause a nervous system disorder similar to Parkinson's disease.
Molybdenum
- Molybdenum is a cofactor needed for the functioning of four enzymes: aldehyde oxidase, mitochondrial amidoxime, sulfite oxidase, and xanthine oxidase.
- Legumes, grains, and nuts are excellent sources of molybdenum.
- There have been no reports of molybdenum deficiency in healthy individuals, and excesses of the trace mineral generally have low toxicity.
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Learn about the key functions and food sources of trace minerals, as well as deficiency and toxicity disorders associated with them.