Time Period 1: Pre-Columbian & Early Contact

Time Period 1: Pre-Columbian and Early European Contact

• Beringia: A land/ice bridge connecting Siberia and North America.
• American Indian Advancements: Developed maize cultivation (corn), irrigation systems (e.g., pueblos in the Rio Grande), permanent villages, and complex societies before European contact. Hunting and gathering decreased, and population increased.
• Native American Groups: Groups in the Great Plains and Great Basin relied on bison and sheep; those in the Northeast combined hunting/gathering and agriculture; those along the Mississippi River built large mounds (e.g., Cahokia); and Algonquian groups along the Atlantic seaboard practiced "Three Sisters" farming (corn, beans, squash).
• European Culture (Middle Ages-Reformation): Feudal societies, largely Christian, with social hierarchies; Crusades opened trade routes but weakened nobles, leading to monarchical strength; The Renaissance emphasized cultural awakening; Reformation led by Martin Luther sparked religious arguments; Technological advancements like the printing press (movable type) and caravel ships were key.
• Christopher Columbus: Sailed west in 1492, landing in the West Indies.
• Reasons for European Exploration: "God, Gold, and Glory" - spreading Christianity, seeking riches, and achieving fame.
• Columbian Exchange: The transfer of crops (potatoes, maize), diseases (devastating to native populations), people (slaves), and ideas between Europe and the Americas.

Time Period 1: European Colonization

• Encomienda System: A Spanish land grant system that justified Native American enslavement, claiming it was necessary for Christianizing them. Bartolomé de Las Casas advocated for their fair treatment.
• Conquistadors: Spanish conquerors like Hernán Cortés (Aztecs) and Francisco Pizarro (Incas) led to significant native populations.
• Spanish Exploration and Colonization: Included intermarriage, royal officials, a rigid caste system, and a focus on precious metals (gold and silver), and plantation agriculture (sugarcane).
• Interaction with Natives: Spanish colonization often involved the view of natives as uncivilized and the goal of converting them to Christianity. Natives were often enslaved, exploited, and their lives significantly impacted by disease.
• Portugal Colonization and Treaty of Tordesillas: Divided newly discovered territory between Spain and Portugal.
• French Colonization: Focused on trade (especially the fur trade) with Natives, often accepting intermarriage. Founded Quebec.
• Dutch Colonization: Established trade posts in New York.
• Pueblo Revolt (Pope's Rebellion): Native Americans revolted against Spanish religious and governmental suppression. It resulted in more accommodating Spanish policies toward natives
• Maroons: Escaped slaves.

Time Period 2: British Colonization

• Mercantilism: An economic system focusing on enriching the mother country through a favorable balance of trade (more exports than imports).
• Reasons for British Colonization: Competition with Spain, desire for resources (gold and silver), unemployment, and religious freedom (Puritans).
• British Colonies: Included Jamestown (first successful English colony, focusing on tobacco), Plymouth (Pilgrims), Massachusetts Bay Colony (Puritans), Chesapeake Bay colonies (Maryland, Virginia, tobacco and fishing), Pennsylvania (Quakers, religious freedom), Connecticut(first written constitution).
• Characteristics of British Colonies: New England: small towns, subsistence farming, mixed economy , higher life expectancy ; Middle Colonies: cereal crops (bread colonies), ship building; Southern Colonies: warm climate, cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo), plantations, and reliance on slave labor;
• Triangular Trade: Trade routes between Africa, the Americas, and Europe, involving enslaved people.
• Navigation Acts: Regulated colonial trade and required the colonies to trade primarily with Britain.
• Metacom's War: Conflict between British colonists and Native Americans (Wampanoag).
• Bacon's Rebellion: Virginian colonists' rebellion against the governor, partly a result of resentment towards the increasing use of enslaved Africans.
• Salem Witch Trials Massachusetts, period of mass hysteria and accusations involving witchcraft.
• First Great Awakening: Religious revival in the colonies emphasizing individualism and evangelicalism. Influential figures included Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.

Time Period 3: The Road to Revolution

• French and Indian War: Conflict between Britain and France (and their respective Native American allies) over territory. The Treaty of Paris of 1763 ended this, giving Britain control of much of North America.
• Proclamation Act of 1763: Restricted colonial expansion west of the Appalachian Mountains, leading to tension between colonists and the British government.
• Taxation and British Policies: Britain imposed taxes like the Stamp Act, Sugar Act, Currency Act, and Quartering Act. This caused colonial resistance.
• Colonial Resistance: Led by groups like the Sons and Daughters of Liberty; colonial boycotts, protests, and acts of civil disobedience.
• Stamp Act Congress: A meeting of colonial representatives to protest the Stamp Act.
• Committees of Correspondence: Facilitated communication between the colonies, leading to greater unity and coordinated opposition to British policies.
• Townshend Acts: Imposed taxes on imported goods, sparking further colonial resentment and protest (Boston Massacre).
• Boston Tea Party: A colonial protest against the Tea Act.
• Coercive Acts (Intolerable Acts): Punitive measures imposed by Britain in response to the Boston Tea Party.
• First Continental Congress: A meeting of colonial representatives to address grievances against British policies.
• Lexington and Concord: First armed conflict of the American Revolutionary War.
• Second Continental Congress: Established the Continental Army and eventually declared independence.
• Declaration of Independence: Document proclaiming the thirteen American Colonies free from British rule.
• American Revolution: War between the 13 colonies and Great Britain, resulting in American Independence.
• Important Battles: Bunker Hill, Long Island, Trenton, Valley Forge, Saratoga, Yorktown.
• Treaty of Paris (1783): Recognized the United States as an independent nation.

Time Period 3: Early Republic

• Articles of Confederation: First government of the newly independent United States, weak central authority.
• Northwest Ordinance: Established a process for admitting new states to the Union, and prohibited slavery in the new Northwest Territory.
• Shay's Rebellion: A rebellion of farmers in Massachusetts against economic hardship. High taxes, and foreclosures; showed the weakness of the Articles of Confederation.
• Constitutional Convention: Meeting that resulted in the creation of the U.S. Constitution.
• Constitution: Created a government with a stronger federal system and separation of powers, including an executive, judicial, and legislative branch.
• Great Compromise: A compromise between large and small states on representation in Congress.
• Changes after the War: Separation of Church and state, and Increased opportunities for women (republican motherhood), and development of republicanism.
• Impacts of the Revolution across the world: French Revolution, Haitian Revolution, Latin American Revolutions .