Thinking Geographically

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

• Spatial distribution refers to how things are arranged across a space such as city, province, country, or world
• ESPEN factors (Economic, Social-cultural, Political, and Environmental) influence spatial distribution
• Absolute location is an exact geographic location, like coordinates; it's quantitative and similar to "site."
• Relative location describes where something is in relation to another object; it's qualitative and similar to "situation"
• Sense of place pertains to people's perception of a location
• Distance decay explains the inverse relationship between distance and interconnection i.e., interconnection decreases with greater distance
• Modern technology diminishes the impact of distance decay
• Time-space compression is achieved with technology by reducing the time it takes for ideas or products to move between places
• Pattern refers to how objects are arranged in space
• Process explains "why of where” or reasons for a pattern's occurrence

Maps

• Reference maps are informational, showing physical and man-made features
• Thematic maps display quantitative data like density and distribution to tell a story
• Choropleth maps use shading to show quantitative data and density
• Dot distribution maps use dots to represent values, showing distribution, but making density hard to discern
• Graduated symbol maps use symbol sizes to represent data values, with larger symbols indicating more of an object
• Isoline maps use different shades to divide areas with varying amounts of an occurrence
• Cartograms distort geographic size to represent data, making spaces with more measured objects appear larger
• Map projections always involve distortions because Earth’s curved surface cannot accurately be represented on a flat image
• Conformal projections retain shape but distort size
• Equal-area projections distort oceans to retain landmass sizes

Map Projections Types

• Mercator projections show latitude and longitude at right angles, preserving shape but greatly distorting size at higher latitudes, primarily used for navigation
• Gall-Peters projections preserve size but distort shape through stretching and compressing
• Robinson projections balance size and shape of continents, distorting polar areas less than Mercator and are used in atlases
• Goode's projections remove oceans to preserve landmass size and shape, common in thematic maps and composed of four landmass ovals

Geographic Data

• Data gathering "in the field" involves individuals or organizations collecting any type of data
• Data is gathered by government agencies, private companies (often through devices or apps), research institutes or universities (via surveys or studies), and individuals (through field observations)
• A census is taken every decade, collecting data like population, ages, and household sizes
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) can collect, store, analyze, and display diverse geographic data, e.g., locations of houses, roads, mountains
• Satellite Navigation Systems like GPS provide precise coordinates for travel
• Remote sensing involves satellites scanning Earth to collect data on urban settlements, droughts, and land use
• Data is collected via online maps, field observations, media reports, field notes, legislation, expert interviews, landscape analysis, and aerial photography,

Using Geographic Data

• Individuals use GPS for navigation
• Companies use GIS to select new sites
• Federal governments use census data for funding and redistricting decisions
• State and local governments use GIS for transportation and urban planning decisions

Environment

• Sustainability involves using resources for immediate benefit while preserving them for long-term benefits
• Renewable resources can be remade and are therefore sustainable; non-renewable resources are finite
• Land use types include agricultural, industrial/commercial, residential, transportational, and recreational
• Environmental determinism, developed in the ancient world, posits that natural factors dictate human life, used by Europeans to justify colonization
• Environmental determinism is debunked with the temperate region (45 degrees north and south of the equator) as a common living zone
• Possibilism states that while physical environments affect humans, humans can overcome restrictions and adapt

Geographic Scales and Regions

• Map scale is the relationship between map distance and real-world distance
• Scales of analysis include global, regional, national, and local
• Different patterns can be seen at different scales, e.g., a country with high population density may have local areas with differing densities
• Formal regions are uniform and have defined boundaries
• Functional/nodal regions depend on a central node
• Vernacular/perceptual regions share characteristics but lack defined boundaries, relying on people's perceptions

Unit 2: Population

• Geographic and human factors influence population distribution
• Arable land is suitable for growing crops
• Ecumene is the total inhabited area
• Density measures people per unit area
• Distribution describes the spread of population
• Arithmetic density is the total population divided by total land area, least useful geographically
• Physiological density is the total population divided by arable land, indicating carrying capacity e.g., how close a country is to being able to support their population
• Agricultural density is the number of farmers divided by arable land, which indicates a country's development i.e., less-developed countries typically needing more farmers than more-developed ones
• Population centers are in South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe
• Population distribution impacts provision of services, with more services provided for areas with greater populations

Population Pyramids

• Population pyramids map age and gender and can be used across scales to predict growth or decline
• Population pyramids identify workforce size and historical events affecting population distribution

Population Dynamics

• Population dynamics are influenced by fertility, mortality, and migration
• Crude birth rate (CBR) is the number of live births per 1,000 people per year
• Crude death rate (CDR) is the number of deaths per 1,000 people per year
• Infant mortality rate (IMR) is the number of infant deaths (under 12 months) per 1,000 live births
• Total fertility rate (TFR) is the average number of children a woman bears while counting only women aged 15-45
• Rate of natural increase (RNI) is (CBR - CDR)/10 calculating population growth
• Doubling time is the number of years for a population to double, estimated by dividing 70 by RNI
• Zero population growth (ZPG) is achieved when the TFR is at a level where there is constant population without growth or decline

Life Expectancy and Demographic Transition Model (DTM)

• Life expectancy is the average years a person is expected to live and depends on CDR, IMR, food production, sanitation, and healthcare
• Stage 1 (High Stationary) presents with high death and birth rates resulting in little population growth in isolated tribes with a population mostly young and low life expectancy
• Stage 2 (Early Expanding) presents with death rates begin to fall, but birth rates remain high resulting in rapid population growth in industrializing countries as life expectancy rises but most of the population is still young
• Stage 3 (Late Expanding) occurs in industrializing countries presenting with rapidly increasing life expectancy but death and birth rates are falling resulting in less rapid increase
• Stage 4 (Low Stationary) occurs in developed countries by fully industrialized, service-based economies presents with low death and birth rates resulting in little population growth with older populations
• Stage 5 (Declining) occurs in extremely developed economies and presents with low birth rates lower than death rates resulting in population decline with slowly death rates rising with older populations

Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM)

• Epidemiological Transition Model stages correspond to the Demographic Transition Model stages
• Stage 1 presents with famine and plagues and lower life-expectancy and no countries in this stage today except isolated societies
• Stage 2 presents with death rates decreasing and better sanitation leading to diseases in cities along with better food starting in Industrial Revolution
• Stage 3 presents with degenerative diseases and humans eating unhealthily with deaths no longer caused by natural disasters and technology is solving diseases and life expectancy is higher
• Stage 4 presents with ending degenerative diseases and new better technology with most people eating healthier
• Stage 5 presents with evolved diseases and medicine gets less effective in part due to globalization

Malthusian & Population Theory

• Thomas Malthus believed agricultural capacity wouldn't keep pace with exponential population growth, leading to catastrophe as the theory doesn't account for agriculture revolutions
• Pro-natalist policies encourage more children, often implemented in countries with smaller birth rates with free daycare and subsidies
• Anti-natalist policies discourage more children, often in countries with high birth rates with limits on children and family planning
• Immigration policies restrict or promote it based on xenophobia or labor shortages

Role of Women, Dependency Ratios & Migration

• Social changes and access to contraception reduced fertility impacting demographic changes
• Access to education and healthcare for women decreases birth rates as they are more incentivized to join the workforce impacting demographic changes
• Dependency ratio is the ratio of dependents (under 16 and over 64) to the workforce
• Lower dependency ratios are more ideal in the US and have plenty of workforce while LDCs tend to have lower dependency ratios
• Aging populations stress the workforce as the workforce shrinks while MDCs have higher dependecy
• Retirement ages are extended to combat aging populations
• Push factors force people to leave a country
• Pull factors attract people to a country

Types of Migration & Laws

• Forced involves government or environment
  • Internally Displaced Persons are temporarily displaced within their country
  • Asylum Seekers seek protection in another country
• Voluntary involves movement and settling in other countries
  • Transnational
  • Transhumance is typically nomadic in hearding
• Chain involves citizen or green card holders sponsoring family
• Colonization is a historical migration wave that involves spreading culture that erased or mixed with Indigenous cultures -diseases impacted people and the continent
• Atlantic slave trade and Human trafficking exist
• Refugess are forced to leave a country due to persecution
• USA migration trends impact Asian trade
• Ravensteins law says Most migrants travel short distances step by step, from rural to urban areas
• Each migration flow often has a counter flow of people returning
• Most migrants are adults, and families are less likely to relocate internationally
• International migrants are often young adult males

Unit 3: Culture

• Culture provides identity
• Culture presents traits of practices in a territory
• Ethnicity is when people share history
• Race is when people share biology
• Ethnic beliefs are limited
• Universal include many
• Folk traditions are homogeneuous
• Pop cultures are international
• In language families, ancestors have different languages
• Xenophobia means you hate different people
• Cultural landscape involves interaction and heritage

Diffusion and More Culture

• Cultural landscape influences characteristics
• Placemaking influences an area
• Cultural diffusion spreads traits
  • Relocation changes area as you move
  • Expansion diffuses
  • Contagious contacts traits
  • Hierarchial influences prestige
  • Stimulus adapts to area
• Terminology says cultures mix traits
  • Syncretism exists
  • Language is adopted
  • Acculturation influences minorities
  • Imperialsim merges into culture

Unit 4: Political Patterns & Processes

• Geopolitics influences area
• Territoriality takes place
• State presents territories
• Nation has shared culture, belief and value
• Nation-state has its own state and area
• Stateless does not have their own area but wants one
• Autonomous is freedom
• Self determination says they have freedom
• Imperialsm controls territory
• Colonialism is when an area controls the colony
• Devolution helps with mountains and separatism
• Neocolonialism is in power
• Shatterbelts help control territory
• Political power is big in the world
• Unitary states have many groups
• Federal states are separated
• Unitary leaders are limited
• Boundaries are built to keep people out
• Nations are built

UNCLOS

• Borders and protection
• The convention of the sea
• A legal territory in the sea
• Internal area where votes are taken
• Territories annex other areas
• Government have different powers
• Laws must be divided

Unit 5: Agriculture & Landuse

• Agriculture produces plants for climate
• Economy presents sales
• High yield produces labor
• Farming involves the 1st revolution
• Silk and diffusion share the world
• Agriculture produces less work
• Machines and labor improve
• GMO's are present
• Sub states prices and theories

Types of farming

• intensive farming
• extensive
• small products
• large territories
• bid rent and thenum
• market influence
• colonialsm supports
• farming declines

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land-Use Patterns and Processes & Revolution

• Urban and rural have buildings
• revolution shows population
• class causes expansion
• urbanization grows
• cities classify
• gravity produces attractions

More Cities

• Primate and central cities have theories
• Models measure everything
• There is a process of cities to decline
• People plan to make the city better
• Government controls areas
• Revolution helps trade
• There must be technology