Thinking Geographically

Thinking Geographically

• Space is the geometric surface of Earth.
• Objects on Earth's surface are defined by their location and separated by distance.
• Activity space is an area where activities occur daily.
• Place is bounded space with human importance.
• Toponym is a place-name given to a location when human importance is recognized.
• Regions are a type of place, along with urban areas, workplaces, resources, and transportation hubs.
• Place attributes change over time.
• Sequent occupancy considers the succession of groups and cultural influences throughout a place's history over a long term.
• Various historical layers contribute to a place's culture, society, politics, and economy.
• Scale relates an object or place to Earth overall.

Map Scale and Analysis

• Map scale is the ratio of map distance to real-world distance expressed in absolute terms.
• Relative scale or scale of analysis is the level of aggregation, or how things are grouped for examination.
• Scales range from local to global.

Types of Regions

• Regions are categorized as formal, functional, or vernacular.
• Formal regions have bounded space with homogeneous characteristics or uniformity.
• A common language can be a unifying homogeneous trait.

Regional Boundaries

• Regional boundaries vary by region type.
  • Culture regions tend to have fuzzy borders.
  • Political region boundaries are finite and well-defined.
  • Environmental region boundaries are transitional and measurable.
• Ecotone is the environmental transition zone between two bioregions.
• Functional or nodal regions have a central place/node as a practical focus.
• Market areas are a type of functional region
• Because outlet malls are placed far apart, they greatly influence shoppers traveling from long distances.
• Intervening opportunity attraction takes precedence if it is at a shorter distance than the farther attraction.
• Vernacular regions are based on the residents' perception or collective mental map.
  • Individual or group variation in overall concept within the region.
• Location is considered in both absolute and relative terms.

Location Types

• Absolute location defines a map point using coordinates like latitude and longitude.
• Prime Meridian is 0° longitude, running through Great Britain due to British Royal Navy's role in developing accurate longitude calculations.
• The equator is 0° latitude, while the North and South Poles are 90° latitude.
• Time Zones are divided into 15°-wide zones (with exceptions) resulting from dividing 360° by 24 hours equaling 15°.
• Relative location is a place's location compared to a known place or feature.
• Site and Situation are locational concepts that work together.
  • Site refers to physical characteristics.
  • Situation refers to a place's interrelatedness with other places.
• Distance is considered in absolute and relative terms.

Distance Types

• Linear absolute distance is the distance between two places measured in units like miles or kilometers.
• Distance decay and Tobler's Law explain relative distance.
  • Distance decay (gravity) means interaction lessens the farther away places are.
  • Tobler's Law states all places are interrelated, but closer places are more related.
• Friction of distance is the length of distance that inhibits interaction.
• Space-Time Compression decreases time and relative distance between places due technology like transport or the internet.
• Human-Environmental Interaction is the effect humans have on their environment, and vice versa.

Spatial Interactions: Centers, Theory, Relations

• Central places are nodes of human activity, often the centers of economic exchange.
• Central place theory was developed in the 1930s by German geographer Walter Christaller.
  • City location and urban economic exchange can be analyzed using central places within hexagonal market areas, overlapped at different scales.
• Core and Periphery relationships are displayed by different regional, cultural, economic, political, environmental, and human phenomena and activities.
  • CBD (central business district) is the core of the urban landscape; a country's capital is its political landscape core.
• Patterns occur on Earth's surface when things are grouped into a cluster, or clustering with a purpose around a central point or an economic growth pole called agglomeration.
• A random pattern occurs without rhyme or reason.

Patterns and Land Survey

• Objects normally ordered but appearing dispersed are scattered.
• Linear pattern is a straight line.
• Sinuous pattern is a wavy line.
• Land survey patterns affect property lines and political boundaries.
  • Pre-1830s land divided on natural landscape features with metes and bounds.
  • A rectilinear township and range survey system based upon latitude and longitude lines.
  • Long-lot patterns have narrow frontage on a road/waterway with long lot shape behind.

Types of Density

• Arithmetic density is often calculated in units per square unit of distance.
• Physiologic density measures people per square unit of arable land.
• Agricultural density refers to farmers per square unit of arable land.

Diffusion Patterns

• Human phenomena diffuse spatially in various ways.
• Hearth is the origin point or innovation place.
• Expansion diffusion starts centrally, expanding outward in all directions.
• Hierarchical diffusion originates in a high-order location, moving to lower-order locations.
• Contagious diffusion starts at a point of origin, moving outward to nearby locations like transportation routes.
• Stimulus diffusion sees a general principle diffuse, stimulating new products/ideas.
• Relocation diffusion begins at a point of origin, crosses a physical barrier, and relocates.

Geographic Tools and Types of Maps

• Scientific maps use spatial analysis to mathematically analyze geographic patterns.
• Topographic maps show contour lines of elevation, urban areas, vegetation, and natural features.
• Thematic maps express a particular subject, not landforms for other features.
• Choropleth maps are thematic maps expressing geographic variability using color variations.
• Isoline maps calculate data values between points across a variable surface.
• Dot density maps use dots to show volume/density of a geographic feature.
• Flow-line maps use varying line thickness to show movement direction/volume.
• Cartograms use simplified geometries to represent real-world places.
• A mental map is a cognitive landscape image in the human mind.

Map Scale and Projections

• Map scale is the absolute form of the scale concept.
• Linear map scale expresses distance on the map surface.
• The ratio scale shows the mathematical relationship between map distance and the Earth.
• Large-scale maps have a relatively large real number (1:50,000).
• Small-scale maps have a relatively small real number (1:1,000,000).
• Each projection creates different levels of accuracy in terms of size and shape distortion for different parts of Earth, which accuracy being based upon two concepts: area preservation and shape preservation.
  • Equal-area projections maintain relative spatial science and areas, but distort polygon shapes.
  • Conformal projections maintain polygon shapes, but distort relative area.
• The Robinson projection and the Goode's homolosine projection balance area and form, sacrificing a bit of both to create a more visually practical representation of the Earth's surface.

Models

• A model is an abstract generalization of shared real-world geographies patterns.
  • Spatial models show pattern commonalities among similar landscapes.
  • Urban models show spatial relations of different cities and their economic or social structures.
  • Demographic transition models are non-spatial models using population data to construct dynamic growth in national populations without referenced space.
• A gravity model is a mathematical model for spatial analysis:
  • Used to calculate transportation flow, determine a city's business influence area, and estimate migrant flow.
• Models show geographical patterns not normally visible, answering theoretical questions.
• Concentric zone model can be modified into a graph of cost vs. distance for urban real estate.
• Geographic Information Systems (GIS) became practical with desktop computers in the 1970s, incorporating data layers and spatial analysis and mapping.
• Global Positioning System (GPS) uses satellites that emits a measurable radio signal.
• Aerial photographs and satellite-based remote sensing form geographic and GIS data.
  • Aerial photographs are images from aircraft, printed on film, with digital camera use rising.
  • Remote-sensing satellites use computerized scanners to record Earth's surface data.

Population and Statistics

• Unit Two transitions by introducing key concepts from statistics to the population.
• Population growth involves rate of natural increase (RNI) and the demographic equation.
  • The demographic equation uses birth rates, death rates, immigration, and emigration statistics to show population growth.
• Birth rate, or natality, is the crude birth rate (CBR) and annual statistic.
  • High birth rates: rural agricultural Third-World.
  • Low birth rates: urbanized industrial and service-based.
• Ex: Record total living infants born for one calendar year, expressed as: CBR: Number of Live Births/Total Population x 1,000.
• Death rate, or mortality rate, is the crude death rate (CDR) and annual statistic.
  • High death rates in countries experiencing war, disease, famine or poor Third-World countries experiencing poverty, poor nutrition, epidemic disease, and a lack of medical care.
  • Green Revolution: (increased food and nutrition) and access to sanitation, education, and health care.
• Expressed as: CDR: Number of Deaths/Total Population x 1,000.
• The rate of natural increase (RNI), or the natural increase rate (NIR) is the annual percentage growth of that country for that one-year period.
  • Formula: RNI: Birth Rate - Death Rate/10%.
• Negative RNI means population shrinkage: highly urbanized First-World countries where traditional roles of women in the country of mother and housewife have deteriorated significantly.

Fecundity and Migration

• Reduced fecundity occurs when many heavy women in business are less likely to have children, making double-income no-kid (DINK) households and single-parent-single-child homes are far more common; higher rates of divorce.
• Natural increase excludes immigration/emigration.
  • Formula: In a country with high RNI but large emigration may have unexpectedly low long-term predictions.
• Doubling Time: how long to double size, found with 70/Rate of Natural Increase.
• Estimate future RNI for the year by examining the RNI for each year in the future by examining a country's position with (Pop. × RNI1) + (Pop. x RNI2) + (Pop. x RNI3) + (Pop. × RNIn) = Future Population.
• Net Migration Rate (NMR): number of immigrants minus emigres for every 1,000, can be negative.
  • Formula: Number of Immigrants - Number of Emigrants/Population /1,000.
• Population Growth Percentage Rate = (Birth Rate - Death Rate) + Net Migration Rate/10%
• Total fertility rate: Estimated children born to females in birthing age (15-45).
  • Formula: Number of Children Born/Women Aged 15 to 45.
• Replacement rate is a TFR of 2.1 requires a large population to have 2.1 children per birthing age female,
• Dependency ratio: the number of people too young or old to work versus people in the work force.
• These statistics inform the demographic transition model (DTM).

Demographic Transition and Epidemiological Transition Models

• The demographic transition model (DTM) provides population changes over time and insights into migration, fertility, economic development, industrialization, urbanization, labor, politics, and the role of women.
  • Newly industrialized countries (NICs) can be placed on the model by changing the dates when they reach the changing points in history.
• The epidemiological transition model (ETM) accounts for increasing population growth rates with medical advances.
  • Development sees the phase of development followed by stabilized population growth while procreation declines.
  • Population changes can predict how much the population will grow.
  • The population projection estimated planet has reached two-thirds of its potential.
• The S-Curve of Population has an animal population receiving vast food/removes predators which has growth w/ plateau/decline reaches or exceeds carrying capacity.

DTM Stage Analysis

• Stage One is Historically characterized by pre-agricultural societies engaged in subsistence farming and transhumance.
  • Birth and death rates fluctuate due to climate, warfare, disease, and ecological factors, but overall, both rates are high.
  • Child mortality and infant mortality very high.
  • Result: little population growth until the later part of stage one then death rates begin to decline; RNI is generally low or negative.
  • Modern Third-World countries who engage in warfare have late stage one characteristics.
• Stage Two is typically agriculturally-based economies.
  • Birth rates remain high and life expectancy rises while death rates decline over time; RNI increases.
  • Infant and child mortality is still an issue due to a lack of medical care.
  • Poor nutrition for expectant mothers and infants.
• Populations in stage two countries live in rural regions due to agriculture's economic prominence.
• Stage Two 1/2:
  • NIC economies focus on manufacturing. Birth and death rates decline.
  • Rapid population growth; high RNIs; rapidly increasing rate of urbanization.
  • Migrants respond to the pull factor of employment opportunity and rapidly fill the cities.
  • Stage Three is where "industrialized” or manufacturing-based countries are transitioning.
  • Economies are shifting toward a more service-based focus.
  • Birth and death rates decline due to urbanization with more access to fertility control methods from reduction of medical advances

DTM Stage Three, Four, Five Analysis

• Stage Four and Five sees birth and death rates converge when limited population growth and decline occur.
  • Service industries drive the economy; manufacturing dies.
  • Ex: United States services are 80% of GDP with manufacturing only 20%. Both final stages of occur when rates bottom into the lower teens.
  • Zero population growth (ZPG), is when (RNI of 0.0%) sees birth rates equal death rates.
• Elderly population means fewer people investing their money and stagnation.
  • Which causes less money to circulate through the society, lower tax base with labor supply shortage.
• Countries at or below ZPG offer incentives to citizens having more children.
  • Fewer children mean less entering the workforce over time and dependency on foreign guest workers.
• Many former Communist countries of Eastern Europe have stage four demographics as economic restructuring brings economic, political, and social hardship to many communities.
• Malthusian Theory says global population will one day expand with enough food to feed everyone. Mathus stated food grows in slow growth while population grows exponentially.
• Science of genetics no impact on global food production until 1950s. Neo-Malthusians warn 1. Sustainability of damage to food growing areas.

Capita Demand, Pyramids, Migration

• There is 2. Increasing Per Capita Demand when the planet must provide enough food for population consuming it today.
• Need to solve for 3. Natural Resource Depletion to house everyone today.
• Population Pyramids to graphically visualize population structure and distribution.
  • Males are always on the left and females on the right.
  • Each bar is an age cohort in five-year sets.
  • The origin is the center, rising higher outside the center.
• Gaps in data between men and women may be due to past war, epidemics, or famine.
• Shape of pyramid is relative
• Increased mortality causes elder declines, shrinking the top causing significance elderly population..
• Population density calculated in 2 main ways
  • Arithmetic density is people per square unit of land.
  • Physiologic density people per square unit of farmland for limitations.
• The population center of a country is found by spatial averaging weights.
• Overpopulation is a concern in both poor areas and the globe with source of nonrenewable energy.
• Migration involves those who move.
  • Many countries seeinternal changes by shifting population distributions.
  • Interregional, or internal, migrants move from one region to another.
  • Transnational migration: migrants move from one country to another.
  • Forced migration: taken or coerced labor slavery

Immigration and Migration Factors

• Undocumented immigrants: people seeking refuge or job but no government authorization.
• Amnesty programs: undocumented immigrants applying for status arrest/deportation?
• Step migration: moves up location hierarchy with each move and to economically prosperous place.
• Chain migration: settlers establishing new migrant foothold.
• Life-course changes: movement because of major changes.
• Push factors: rural agricultural landscape and agriculture forcing people off the farm
• (ex: conflict, pollution, increase land costs)
• Pull factors: city drawing people by jobs, education, access.

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns & Processes

• Culture: shared experience, traits, activities of common heritage.
• Culture Components
  • Art
  • Architecture
  • Language
  • Music
  • Film, TV
  • Clothing
  • Food
  • Land Use
  • Folklore
• Each component expresses many ways to culturally influence that reflect identity and influence.
• Cultural synthesis (syncretism) blends cultural influences.

American and Music Culture Breakdown

• EX: Country music is product of American culture, tied to folk traditions, mixing vocabulary, rhythms, instruments from the Scots-Irish, the German, African immigrants, and enslaved people American South.
• Many components identify and define a single culture group/nation.
• Art identifies groups/sources of local pride.
• Architectural culture finds product influence within human landscape
• modern contemporary construction w/ new innovations
• Modern architecture developed that expresses geometric ordered forms - (rectangular steel/glass skyscrapers built in 1970s-1980s)
• Contemporary architecture more organic, w/ curvature incorporates green energy and materials

Postmodern, Housing and Tradition

• Postmodern: abandonment design of linearity in favor of curves.
• Traditional can express two patterns of building type
  1. New building incorporates efficiency/simplicity/squared walls and traditional material usage.
  2. Housing based folk designs from region
• Housing Types
  • New England: small one-story pitched roof Cape Cod/Saltbox w/ a low back angle.
  • Federalist/Georgian housing styles referred from 1700/1800 Anglo-America.
    • 2-3 story urban townhomes connected to rows of windows.
• I-house: loose form of form Federal/Georgian design on household w/ federal and Canadian influences and is typically used as inspiration for family homes used in US and Canada.

Buildings, Tradition and Religion

• buildings/places

• Christian: has steeple or building on the side

  • Steeples typify small churches/bell towers used in bigger
  • Symbolically old churches have floor-plan

• Hindu: rectangular/carved or cut stone.

  • Towers mark step designs facing head on

• Buddhist/shrine: Buddhism that has religion following region Nepal and Tibet has stupa

• in East Asia, pagoda

• Chinese temples build with curves

• Islam; dome form central

• Judaic: not has type with wall for prayer

• Languages

• US; non federally determined – monoligual: to know one type

• Has statement to provide

• Is bilingual

• Depending which linguistic language in common

• Is given to provide

• King to provide

• English Cockney with posh types of people.

• Simple language

• Language created and incorporate with dialect

Language, Major Families, Origins

• English is global for other popular forms

• Major Language Families:

• There are small numbers for early languages roots can group from language or sub

• Indo-European concept comes from linguistic origin

• Largest member of language families: – Indo-European (2.9 population) – Sino (1.3) – Niger Congo (435) – Afro (375) – Austriolasion (346)

– Divadiasion (230) – Ataic (165)

• Japan (123)

• Tai Kadai (81)

• Competing Theories

• Anatolian Theory

• Migration to turkey/area spread outwords

• Russian Therory

• migration and stepped to Central/West Eurpoe

• Genetic suggest European area derived in origin • music nonform with georgraphic relation

• Folk music origional with region.

  • Instruments special to where

World, Music and Media

• local song lyrics of religious tradition described as folktale

• Population of cultures that create pop culture of locals.
• That regions has blue music types
• Influence contempary music recently with rock and roll

• film Television

• Have types of signs

• Media can do both • food:

• material forms varies rooted geologically/ # of geographies

• has many from main land europe in 1800s • Embolded in haute cuisine traditionally with meat and wine sources such as potato

• Novelle cuisine : continues/ styles of the italy Spain – Fusion Cuisine. global tradition

– based off farm food.

Clothing.

– forms culture with the earth

• Way can show. – social interraction,

_constructed: device through group. – physical greeting basic

• Greeting in west

– bow as 1 greeting japan – no face greeting many

Belief Systems

• Specific drawn groups of large number and can be done for free

• religion has all _follow in ethnic .

– confine group to specific • all religious scripture from divine inspiration – formal doctorines govern ethnic — has to have or for better or less or more in group — has little interest on beliefs

_ synthetic with other 2

• Three belief systems Anamist : various traditional worship style w/. natural worship • These group similar with themes worship patterns and ethics with right life. Share belief with items natural having spirit as with animal and trees

Religions, Caste and Society

• Hindu Buddhism tradionalism and Jainism Oldest universal. religion begin with Hindu. 5k years ago

  • Poly what have belief in multiole life.

  -has a form

• Abrahams version:

• Simular and have the power in it to create – system single, great state

  • Sub states or archangels

• significancy w prohecy. system

• cosmology is with of several of with form have has earth animals, symbol of form in action all recarate time and again

• Caste System in India India. form to do some things in area by which its work their karma

• If someone is born to caster to their wealth

• Government in India is start to elimate type in system is is rural

– The 5 castes( from greatest and lowest)- Brahams: Preist With temple/Leading worship To high official May take out material as monks Ksatriay: Aristicrocrat/war Princes bow to Brahams May have workers/ leaders/ people owners

Occupation Sectors

• vaisthyas: merchant profess
• Many were lawyers/accountants/ government _shudras: caste/farmers
• caste potter/workers
• not leisure or ability
• forbidten by teaching
• dalets "" is name from system by casteres
• Segrated by houses/communities
• sub dived to trade as leather cattles and have low handiling

• Islamic state: Theo Sharia

• theo reliogous leaders. ( iran has state head counsel can overrule part and president

No all east state follow religious or law

other: more common seculatr; not by government rather British legal trad. – theo. Iran Afghan through taliban. • 5 Pillars = Koran Emphasized

Koran's Five Pillars and Folklore

• 5 Daily Prayers must be followed.
  • The prayer should follow with system _ stop pray prayer is face to Mecc Islamic with to to show meech – second. ism creed -statement is with belief -muhammed relig. convert of area had tribal groups
  • number shares of tradition but he is best. – third poor -all us to c care sick __charity w/ Isalm help for poor
• 1 observance: Ramadan- cleansing , fasting for daylight/eat plan set to fall during the moneth to show grege -5:Hajj Make to meech there lifetime — haji to do for journey – mostly in season of ramando.
• Folklore: colleciton to speak and tell history found in area With tells a history to connect with people.
• aesops fable shows good beihaviors
• The intersect of it shows historic with distortion.

Local Land, Tradition and Residences

• land how share it with others has affect — farm culturally. Influenced

• range from form.to farming found – residnece form Distributation : also indicator w. cultural and tribal Traditions — single clan : with more – whole common with shared area

• How property is used and divided. • Landholding and reformed has smaller policity Patterns: is long with from waterways and areas. Nation, ethnicity Is singular • State: by form in to be •Ethnicity blend with allience

— Claim is similar and what is what is.

• can not the froms. _State: state

cultural is Race and how body. reacts • Developed • form 1800 anthropologist Catagized the group based factor like bone form

Cultures Through Time

– rudely for area, –3 racial form emergent Mogoloid area Caucasion have body. type and face. – african. Dark types

• 4 anthropological area Pacific:

• all in area – dark area. • indon

• light in Tonga shape

• micro shape and area

• in Australlia light brown.

• Identiities one body. form/ race mixed groups.

Population and Racism's Effects

— Mitzto mix togehter races.

• indigenous groups form to settle in Racism • Enviornemntnal determines It was used to build ideas

• possiblism : is use to modify a view – area is used. to control

• Ethnocentric: of group to not work together, relativism area

Identity

• identity express heritages. area to people to share that heritage • identity press from area to share

_ Border : cultural tend for hard to one to connect Cultural with irrreg style ( where connect

• border south or other areas
• heart area all comes from it