Thinking and Problem Solving

Thinking, Problem Solving, and Creativity

• Cognition is the mental activities involving thoughts, decision-making, language, and other higher mental functions.
• Thinking involves reasoning, transforming information to create conclusions.
• Decision-making is choosing among alternatives based on available information.
• Problem-solving involves finding ways to achieve desired goals.
• Language is a crucial cognitive process underlying various mental activities.

Conclusion for Thinking

• Consciousness contains a rapidly changing pattern of thoughts, feelings, and impressions at any given moment.
• Basic elements of thought are concepts, propositions, and images.

Concepts

• Mental categories representing similar objects, events, experiences, or ideas.
• Concepts efficiently summarize vast amounts of information.
• Concepts simplify experience by highlighting similarities and avoiding meaningless variations.
• Logical concepts can be precisely defined based on rules (e.g., hypotheses).
• Natural concepts are based on prototypes, not precise attributes.
• Individual concepts reflect the variety of experiences.

Visual Images

• Mental pictures represent objects or events.
• Mental images can be used to visualize tasks and solve problems.

Propositions

• Sentences relating one concept to another.
• Examples: "Ramesh greeted Sohan."
• Propositions are self-contained assertions.

Types of Concepts

• Simple Concepts: Derived from learning, observing similarities and differences (e.g., circle, triangle).
• Complex Concepts: Represent similarities/differences between multiple variables; developed later in cognitive development (e.g., geometrical concepts).
• Natural Concepts: Based on experience (e.g., mother, dog).
• Artificial Concepts: Created from abstract, complex situations; used in experiments or specific purposes (e.g., artificial intelligence).

Reasoning

• Cognitive activity leading to specific conclusions using available information.
• Formal Reasoning: Logical process using statements to reach conclusions. Examples: All men are mortal, Joe is a man, therefore Joe is mortal; all bachelors are unmarried men, Will is unmarried, therefore Will is a bachelor.
• Everyday Reasoning: More complex and less definite than formal reasoning. Involves daily life tasks like planning, commitments, and evaluating arguments.

Sources of Reasoning Errors

• Mood states
• Beliefs
• Confirmation bias (seeking supporting evidence)
• Hindsight bias ("I knew it all along")

Making Decisions

• Process of choosing among different courses of action or alternatives.
• Decisions involve assessing the utility and probability of possible outcomes.

Heuristics

• Mental shortcuts based on past experiences for making efficient decisions.
• Availability Heuristic: Estimating likelihood based on ease of recalling examples.
• Representativeness Heuristic: Judging probability based on resemblance to a prototype.

Problem Solving

• Involving efforts to find solutions to attain desired goals.

• Methods include trial and error, algorithms, and analogies.

• Trial and Error: Trying different solutions until one works.

• Algorithms: Rules ensuring solutions to specific problems.

• Analogies: Using prior successful solution strategies to solve similar problems.

• Problem identification: Recognizing the problem and defining it clearly.

• Solution formulation: Brainstorming potential solutions.

• Evaluation of solutions: Assessing the effectiveness of solutions.

• Selection and implementation: Choosing and executing the best solution.

• Evaluation of results: Assessing the outcome of the chosen solution.

Thinking: Convergent and Divergent

• Convergent Thinking: Finding a single, correct solution through logical processes.
• Divergent Thinking: Generating multiple creative solutions, emphasizing fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration.

Mental Operations in Problem Solving

• Identifying the problem
• Representing the problem
• Planning and setting goals
• Evaluating potential solutions
• Executing and selecting solutions
• Evaluating the outcome